What We Eat

The primary archetype for raw abalone, including various species (black, brown, and green lip) and specific anatomical parts like the foot and muscle.

Abiyuch — also known as abiyu or the fruit of the Sterculia tree — is a little-known tropical fruit native to parts of the Middle East and North Africa. It is small, somewhat starchy, and closer in use to a vegetable than a sweet fruit, occupying a niche similar to breadfruit or green banana in other tropical cuisines.

The fruit has a mild, subtly earthy flavour and a dense, starchy texture when cooked. It is typically boiled or roasted and eaten as a side dish, sometimes mashed or incorporated into stews. It is not widely cultivated outside its native range and remains a regional ingredient, rarely seen in Australian markets.

The fruit of the açaí palm, including its raw forms and fortified commercial beverage variants.

The açaí palm (Euterpe oleracea) is a species of palm tree native to the floodplains and swamps of Central and South America, particularly the Amazon River basin in Brazil. It produces small, round, deep purple berries that have been a dietary staple for Indigenous communities in the region for centuries.

The palm can grow up to 25 metres tall and produces several bunches of berries per year, each bunch containing hundreds of small fruits. The edible portion of each berry is relatively thin — most of the fruit is a large seed. Açaí berries are highly perishable, which is why they are almost always sold frozen or as a processed pulp outside of their growing regions.

The açaí palm (Euterpe oleracea) is a species of palm tree native to the floodplains and swamps of Central and South America, particularly the Amazon River delta in Brazil. It produces small, round, deep purple fruit in large hanging clusters. The berries have a thin layer of edible pulp surrounding a large seed.

Açaí has been a dietary staple for Indigenous communities in the Amazon for centuries, eaten as a thick pulp with fish or cassava. Since the early 2000s it has gained widespread international popularity, typically consumed as frozen pulp blended into smoothie bowls or juices. Brazil remains the dominant producer and consumer, with the state of Pará accounting for the vast majority of global supply.

The whole fruit of the Acerola tree, also known as the West Indian cherry, celebrated for its exceptionally high natural vitamin C content.

Acerola juice is a sharp, tangy juice made from the tropical acerola fruit. Its flavour sits somewhere between a sour cherry and a cranberry, making it quite tart when consumed straight — it’s often blended with sweeter juices or used in smoothie mixes.

In Brazil and the Caribbean, acerola juice is a common everyday drink, sold fresh at juice bars and market stalls. In Australia, it’s more typically found as a frozen pulp or concentrate in specialty stores.

Achira.

Ackee.

Acorn-based dishes represent some of the oldest prepared foods in human history. Across many Indigenous cultures — particularly Native American groups in North America — acorns were a dietary staple, processed and cooked in a variety of ways including stews, porridges, and breads.

Apache-style acorn stew is one well-documented preparation, where leached acorn meal is slowly cooked into a thick, nourishing dish. The flavour is earthy, mildly nutty, and subtly sweet, with a texture that varies from porridge-like to more substantial depending on the preparation.

Acorn flour is a gluten-free flour milled from the nuts of oak trees. It has a mild, earthy flavour with a subtle sweetness and a slightly gritty texture that varies depending on how finely it’s ground. The full-fat version retains the natural oils of the acorn, giving it a richer taste but shorter shelf life.

Historically a staple food for Indigenous peoples across North America, Europe, and East Asia, acorn flour has found a small but devoted following among foragers and alternative baking enthusiasts. It can be used in pancakes, flatbreads, pasta, and as a thickener for soups and sauces.

Acorn squash is a compact winter squash shaped like a large acorn, typically dark green with a distinctive ridged exterior. Its flesh is golden-orange, mildly sweet, and has a smooth, slightly fibrous texture when cooked. The flavour is gentler than butternut squash — less sugary, with subtle nutty undertones.

It’s a versatile vegetable in the kitchen. The most popular preparation is simply halving it, scooping out the seeds, and roasting until tender. The natural bowl shape makes it perfect for stuffing with grains, mince, or cheese. It also works well in soups, curries, and gratins.

Acorns are the nut-like seeds produced by oak trees, encased in a distinctive cap. Raw acorns are rich in starch and fat but contain high levels of tannins that make them unpalatably bitter and potentially irritating to the digestive system — they require processing before they’re suitable to eat.

Despite the preparation involved, acorns have been a significant food source for humans throughout history and across many cultures. Korean cuisine still uses acorn starch to make a savoury jelly called dotori-muk, while in parts of Europe, roasted acorns have been used as a coffee substitute.

Adzuki Bean.

The African bird’s eye chili (Capsicum frutescens or Capsicum annuum, depending on the variety) is a small, potent chili pepper found across sub-Saharan Africa. It is known by many regional names, including piri piri, peri peri, and pili pili. The peppers are typically 2–3 centimetres long and ripen from green to bright red.

These chilies pack significant heat, generally ranging from 50,000 to 175,000 Scoville heat units, placing them well above jalapeños but below the hottest modern cultivars. They have a sharp, immediate burn with a fruity, slightly smoky undertone that distinguishes them from Asian bird’s eye varieties.

This archetype groups the agar-producing seaweed in its whole, raw, and dried forms.

Agarikon.

Agave is a genus of succulent plants native to the arid and semi-arid regions of the Americas, with the greatest diversity found in Mexico. There are over 200 species, several of which have been cultivated for food and drink for thousands of years by Indigenous peoples of the region.

The plant is best known as the source of tequila and mezcal — spirits made by roasting and fermenting the starchy heart (piña) of specific agave species. Beyond spirits, the sap (known as aguamiel) can be boiled down into a sweet syrup marketed as agave nectar, or fermented into pulque, a mildly alcoholic traditional drink. The roasted heart itself has been eaten as food since pre-Columbian times.

The core of the agave plant, often referred to as the piña, consumed in raw, cooked, or dried forms.

Various grades and processing levels of agave nectar and syrup used as commercial sweeteners.

Whole Alaska blackfish, representing the primary raw form and traditional Alaska Native preparations of this hardy freshwater species.

Alaska king crab is one of the most sought-after shellfish in the world, known for its impressively long legs and sweet, delicate white flesh. The meat has a clean, slightly briny flavour and a satisfying texture that holds up well whether served simply with melted butter or incorporated into dishes.

In Australia, king crab legs are typically sold frozen and pre-cooked, making them a straightforward luxury to prepare at home — they just need gentle reheating. They’re a popular centrepiece for special occasion meals and seafood platters.

Albacore (Thunnus alalunga) is a species of tuna found in the temperate and tropical waters of all the world’s major oceans. It is a pelagic, highly migratory fish that travels vast distances across open ocean, often in large schools. Adults typically weigh 10–25 kilograms, making them smaller than bluefin or yellowfin tuna but still a substantial fish.

Albacore is the only tuna species that can be labelled ‘white tuna’ when canned, due to its pale, mild-flavoured flesh. This distinction has made it commercially valuable, and it accounts for a significant portion of the global canned tuna market. Fresh and frozen albacore is also sold for sashimi and cooking, particularly steaks.

Alfalfa.

Alligator.

Alligator Pepper.

Allspice.

The almond (Prunus dulcis) is the edible seed of a small deciduous tree in the rose family, closely related to peaches, apricots, and plums. What we call the ’nut’ is actually the seed found inside the fruit’s hard stone (pit). The tree is native to western and central Asia and has been cultivated for thousands of years — almond remnants have been found at archaeological sites dating back to the early Bronze Age.

Rich spreads and culinary pastes made from finely ground almonds.

Chocolate-coated almonds are a classic confection that pairs the crunch and mild sweetness of roasted almonds with a shell of milk, dark, or white chocolate. They’re a perennial favourite in Australian gift boxes, trail mixes, and snack bowls.

The combination works because the bitterness of dark chocolate or the creaminess of milk chocolate complements the toasty, buttery flavour of a well-roasted almond. They sit comfortably between a snack and a treat.

Ground almonds used as a gluten-free flour alternative for baking and breading.

Non-dairy beverages derived from almonds, encompassing flavored, sweetened, and fortified varieties.

Pure fat extracted from almond kernels for culinary, cosmetic, or therapeutic use.

Almond yoghurt is a dairy-free alternative to traditional yoghurt, made by fermenting almond milk with live bacterial cultures. It has a mild, slightly nutty flavour and a creamy texture, though generally thinner than dairy yoghurt.

It’s commonly eaten as a breakfast or snack item, served with fruit and granola, or used in smoothies. Flavoured varieties come in options like vanilla, berry, and coconut. Almond yoghurt has become a staple in Australian supermarkets as demand for plant-based dairy alternatives has grown.

Almonds are one of the most widely consumed tree nuts in the world. They have a mild, slightly sweet flavour and a satisfying crunch, making them popular as a snack on their own or as an ingredient in both sweet and savoury cooking.

In the kitchen, almonds are remarkably versatile. They’re used whole, flaked, slivered, or ground into almond meal for baking. Almond milk, almond butter, and marzipan are all staple products derived from them. They feature prominently in Middle Eastern, Indian, and European cuisines — from Indian kormas to French frangipane tarts.

Aloe vera (Aloe barbadensis miller) is a succulent plant species that likely originated in the Arabian Peninsula but has been cultivated and naturalised across warm regions worldwide. It has thick, fleshy, lance-shaped leaves that contain a clear gel, which has been used for medicinal, cosmetic, and food purposes for millennia — records of its use date back to ancient Egypt.

In the food industry, aloe vera gel and juice are used as ingredients in beverages, yoghurts, and desserts. Aloe vera drinks, popular across Asia and increasingly in Australia, typically contain small cubes of the translucent gel suspended in flavoured liquid. The gel has a mild, slightly bitter taste and a distinctive soft, slippery texture.

Aloe vera juice is a translucent, mildly flavoured beverage made from the inner gel of aloe vera leaves. Commercial versions are typically sweetened and fortified with vitamin C, giving them a light, slightly tangy taste.

These drinks are widely available in Asian grocery stores and increasingly in mainstream Australian supermarkets. They often contain small pieces of aloe gel suspended in the liquid, giving them a distinctive texture. They’re generally consumed chilled as a refreshing drink rather than used as a cooking ingredient.

Amaranth.

Amberjack.

American Lobster.

Consolidates the raw native fruit and the general fruit part of the American persimmon into a single archetype.

American shad is an anadromous fish — it lives in the ocean but migrates up rivers to spawn, much like salmon. It has a rich, distinctive flavour and high oil content that makes it well-suited to smoking, grilling, and baking.

Shad is celebrated in the eastern United States, where the spring shad run has been a culinary event for centuries. The roe (eggs) are considered a particular delicacy, typically pan-fried in butter. The flesh itself is delicious but notoriously bony, with a complex network of small pin bones that makes filleting a specialist skill.

The dried form of the poblano pepper, characterized by a sweet, smoky flavor and deep reddish-brown color.

Anise.

Annatto.

Antelope meat is a lean game meat with a mild, slightly sweet flavour — less gamy than venison but with a similar fine-grained texture. It’s tender when cooked properly but can dry out quickly due to its low fat content.

Antelope is primarily eaten in North America (where pronghorn antelope is hunted) and across Africa (where many antelope species are both hunted and farmed). It’s not commercially available in Australia, though some game meat suppliers may occasionally stock imported varieties.

Fresh whole apples encompassing various cultivars and basic raw preparations.

Apple juice is one of the most widely consumed fruit juices in Australia, popular with both children and adults. Most commercial apple juice is made from concentrate — the juice is extracted, concentrated by evaporation, shipped in bulk, then reconstituted with water at the bottling plant. This process is efficient but results in a milder flavour compared to fresh-pressed juice.

Shelf-stable apple juice is pasteurised and packaged in airtight containers that don’t require refrigeration until opened. Many brands add vitamin C (ascorbic acid), which also acts as a preservative to prevent browning. The flavour ranges from sweet and one-dimensional in cheaper products to more complex and balanced in better ones.

Applesauce — or stewed apple, as it’s more commonly called in Australia — is simply apples that have been cooked down into a soft purée. Unsweetened versions rely on the natural sugars of the fruit and have a clean, honest apple flavour.

Stewed apple is a staple in Australian kitchens, served warm alongside roast pork, spooned over porridge, or eaten as a simple dessert with cream or custard. It’s also used as a filling for pastries and as a fat substitute in baking, where its moisture and pectin help keep cakes soft. Commercially canned versions offer convenience and a long shelf life.

Apricot.

Arctic Char.

Nutritional records for Arctic ground squirrel meat, including traditional Alaska Native preparations.

The arenga palm (Arenga pinnata), also known as the sugar palm or black palm, is native to Southeast Asia and is found growing across Indonesia, Malaysia, the Philippines, and parts of India. It is one of the most versatile palms in tropical agriculture, valued for its sap, fibre, starch, and fruit.

The palm’s primary food product is its sap, which is collected by tapping the flower stalks. This sap can be consumed fresh as a sweet drink, fermented into palm wine (toddy) or vinegar, or boiled down into palm sugar — a dark, caramel-flavoured sweetener widely used in Southeast Asian cooking. Arenga palm sugar is sometimes marketed as a less-refined alternative to cane sugar, though it remains a niche product outside its region of origin.

The argan tree (Argania spinosa) is endemic to a relatively small area of southwestern Morocco, where it has been a cornerstone of Amazigh (Berber) food culture for centuries. The tree is remarkably drought-resistant and plays a critical role in preventing desertification in the region. UNESCO designated the argan forest as a Biosphere Reserve in 1998.

Culinary argan oil is made from lightly roasted kernels and has a rich, nutty flavour used in Moroccan dishes, dressings, and dipping sauces. It is distinct from cosmetic-grade argan oil, which is cold-pressed from unroasted kernels. Argan oil remains one of the most expensive edible oils in the world due to the labour-intensive extraction process and the limited growing region.

Armenian Cucumber.

Aronia, commonly called chokeberry, is a hardy deciduous shrub originally native to eastern North America. The most widely cultivated species is the black chokeberry (Aronia melanocarpa), which produces clusters of small, dark purple-black berries in late summer.

The berries have an intensely astringent, tart flavour that makes them difficult to eat raw — hence the common name. They are primarily processed into juice, jam, wine, or dried fruit, and are used as a natural food colouring due to their deep pigment. Commercial aronia farming expanded significantly in Eastern Europe (particularly Poland) from the mid-20th century, and Poland remains the world’s largest producer. Interest in aronia cultivation has grown in Australia, though it remains a minor crop.

Arracacha.

Arrowhead is the edible corm of the aquatic plant Sagittaria, which grows in shallow freshwater across Asia, North America, and parts of Australia. The small, bulb-shaped tubers have a crisp texture when fresh and become fluffy and potato-like when cooked, with a subtle sweetness and a faintly bitter finish.

Arrowhead is a staple in Chinese and Japanese cooking, where it is sliced into stir-fries, simmered in soups, or deep-fried into chips. In Chinese New Year celebrations, arrowhead chips are a traditional snack. The tubers can be treated much like potatoes — boiled, roasted, mashed, or sliced thinly and fried.

Arrowroot.

The globe artichoke (Cynara cardunculus var. scolymus) is a perennial plant in the thistle family, cultivated for its large, unopened flower buds. Native to the Mediterranean region, it has been eaten since ancient Roman times and remains a staple of Italian, Spanish, and French cooking.

The edible portion is the immature flower head: the fleshy bases of the outer leaves (bracts) and the tender heart at the centre, once the inedible ‘choke’ of developing florets is removed. Artichokes have a mild, slightly nutty, earthy flavour. Italy is the world’s largest producer, followed by Spain and Egypt. In Australia, artichokes are grown on a modest scale, primarily in Victoria and South Australia, and are available fresh in season or preserved (marinated, canned, or frozen) year-round.

The tender edible core of the artichoke, including fresh and canned variants.

Asafoetida.

Ash Gourd.

Asparagus.

A common low-calorie sweetener found in diet products and tabletop packets like Equal.

Atlantic Bluefin Tuna.

Atlantic Cod.

Atlantic croaker is a small to medium-sized fish found along the western Atlantic coast from Massachusetts to the Gulf of Mexico. It gets its name from the distinctive croaking or drumming sound it produces using its swim bladder. The flesh is white, lean, and mild with a slightly sweet flavour and a tender, flaky texture.

Croaker is a versatile table fish that takes well to most cooking methods. It is commonly pan-fried, grilled, baked, or included in fish stews and chowders. Its mild flavour makes it a good choice for those who prefer a less “fishy” taste. Whole fish can be scored and fried for a crispy result.

Atlantic Halibut.

Fresh Atlantic herring flesh, including raw forms and simple cooked preparations.

Atlantic Mackerel.

Atlantic ocean perch, also known as redfish or rosefish, is a slow-growing deep-water species found in the cold waters of the North Atlantic. Despite the name, it is not a true perch but a member of the rockfish family. It has firm, white to pinkish flesh with a mild, slightly sweet flavour and a medium flake.

Ocean perch is well-suited to baking, pan-frying, steaming, and poaching. Its firm texture holds up in soups, stews, and curries. The skin crisps well when pan-fried and has an attractive reddish colour. It is a forgiving fish to cook — less likely to fall apart than more delicate species.

Atlantic Pollock.

Atlantic Salmon.

The whole Atlantic sardine and its common canned preparations.

Atlantic wolffish is a large, bottom-dwelling fish found in the cold waters of the North Atlantic. With its powerful jaws and prominent teeth — used for crushing sea urchins, crabs, and shellfish — it has a striking appearance, but the flesh is excellent eating. It is white, firm, and almost meaty in texture, with a clean, mildly sweet flavour.

Wolffish’s dense flesh makes it particularly good for grilling, pan-searing, and baking, as it holds together well and doesn’t flake apart easily. It works nicely in fish curries, fish cakes, and chowders. The lack of small bones makes it easy to prepare and eat.

Fresh, raw avocado fruit including specific cultivars like Hass and Shepard as well as different regional varieties.

Pressed oil extracted from the pulp of the avocado fruit.

Babassu oil is a light yellow to white oil with a mild, slightly sweet flavour and a melting point close to body temperature — it’s solid at room temperature but melts quickly on contact with warm skin or food. Its properties are remarkably similar to coconut oil, making it a useful substitute in cooking and food manufacturing.

The oil comes almost exclusively from wild-harvested babassu palms in Brazil, where its collection supports the livelihoods of traditional communities known as “quebradeiras de coco” (coconut breakers). It’s used in Brazilian cooking for frying and baking.

The babassu palm (Attalea speciosa) is one of the most abundant palm species in Brazil, growing across vast areas of the Amazon transition zone — the region where tropical rainforest gives way to drier cerrado savanna. A mature tree can reach 20 metres in height and produces large clusters of coconut-sized nuts, each containing several small, oil-rich kernels inside an extremely hard shell.

Babassu oil is extracted from these kernels and has properties very similar to coconut oil: it is solid at room temperature, melts on contact with skin, and is used in both food processing and cosmetics. For millions of rural Brazilians — particularly women known as ‘quebradeiras de coco babaçu’ (babassu nut breakers) — collecting and processing babassu nuts is a vital source of income and a practice with deep cultural significance. Outside Brazil, babassu oil is a niche ingredient primarily found in specialty cosmetics and some industrial food applications.

Apple-based baby food is one of the most common first foods for infants, thanks to its naturally sweet flavour and smooth texture. Strained applesauce is typically introduced from around six months of age as part of the transition to solid foods.

Commercial baby food applesauce is available in jars, pouches, and tubs from most Australian supermarkets. It’s made to be completely smooth with no lumps, suitable for babies just beginning to eat solids. Some varieties include added vitamin C.

Green bean baby food is a savoury option for infants and toddlers transitioning to vegetables. The “junior” designation means it has a slightly coarser, chunkier texture compared to strained varieties, making it appropriate for older babies who are developing their chewing skills.

Green beans are a popular early vegetable for babies because of their mild flavour and soft texture when cooked. Introducing savoury vegetables early is often recommended to help develop a broad palate before sweeter fruits dominate preferences.

Plum baby food is a naturally sweet, richly flavoured option for infants. The addition of tapioca starch gives the purée a slightly thicker, more spoonable consistency that sits well on a spoon and is less likely to run everywhere during feeding.

Plums have a distinctive sweet-tart flavour that many babies enjoy, and the deep purple colour makes them visually appealing. This variety is strained to a completely smooth texture suitable for younger babies who are just starting solids.

Beetroot baby food is a vibrant, naturally sweet vegetable purée for infants. Its striking deep red-purple colour and mild, earthy sweetness make it a distinctive addition to a baby’s early diet.

Beetroot is a good early vegetable to introduce, though parents should be prepared for the vivid colour to show up in everything it touches — bibs, faces, and nappies included. Its natural sweetness means most babies take to it readily.

Rice cereal is one of the most traditional first foods for babies, often recommended as an early introduction to solids from around six months of age. The dry flakes or powder are mixed with breast milk, formula, or water to create a smooth, easily digestible porridge.

Fortified rice cereal is enriched with iron and other nutrients to help meet the increased nutritional needs of babies transitioning from an all-milk diet. Iron fortification is particularly important, as babies’ iron stores from birth begin to deplete around six months.

Fruit and yoghurt blends combine the sweetness of puréed fruit with the creamy tang of yoghurt, creating a smooth, dessert-like baby food. These are popular with babies who enjoy the slightly richer texture and flavour compared to plain fruit purées.

The yoghurt component introduces babies to fermented dairy in a gentle way, while the mixed fruit provides natural sweetness. These blends are typically strained to a completely smooth consistency suitable for younger babies.

Mixed fruit dessert baby food combines several puréed fruits into a sweet, smooth blend designed to appeal to young palates. “Fruit supreme” typically features a combination of fruits like apple, peach, pear, and banana, blended together for a rounded, sweet flavour.

These dessert-style baby foods are slightly sweeter and more indulgent than single-fruit purées, making them a common choice for the end of a meal. They’re best introduced after a baby has already accepted a range of individual fruits and vegetables.

Baby snack cereal bars are designed for older babies and toddlers who have moved beyond purées and are eating finger foods. They feature a soft, crumbly cereal base with a fruit filling, and are fortified with iron and other nutrients to support growing children.

These bars are shaped and sized for small hands, making them a convenient on-the-go snack. The soft texture means they break apart easily and dissolve in the mouth, reducing choking risk compared to harder snack bars.

Young, tender spinach leaves typically used fresh in salads.

Baby zucchini are picked when they’re only 8–12 centimetres long, well before the fruit reaches full size. At this stage the skin is thin, the seeds are barely formed, and the flesh has a sweeter, more concentrated flavour than a full-grown zucchini.

Their small size makes them ideal for serving whole — grilled, roasted, or lightly pan-fried. They’re a favourite in Mediterranean-style cooking and work well in antipasto platters, salads, and light summer dishes. The flowers are sometimes still attached at harvest, which are themselves a prized ingredient for stuffing and frying.

Bacon is one of the most widely consumed cured meats in Australia, prized for its savoury, salty flavour and the way it crisps when fried or grilled. Australian bacon comes in several styles — middle bacon (with both the loin eye and a strip of belly), short-cut bacon (the lean loin portion only), and streaky bacon (pure belly), which is the dominant style in American-influenced cooking.

It’s a cornerstone of the cooked breakfast and a common ingredient in sandwiches, burgers, pasta dishes, quiches, and salads. Bacon also serves as a flavour base in many recipes, where small pieces are rendered to provide a smoky, savoury foundation for sauces, soups, and baked dishes.

Baked beans in tomato sauce are a pantry staple across Australia, most often associated with a quick meal on toast or as a side with a cooked breakfast. The beans are small, creamy navy beans (also called haricot beans) in a sauce that balances tomato, sugar, and a touch of spice.

Though they arrived in Australia as a convenience food, baked beans have become firmly embedded in the national diet. They’re a go-to for camping, kids’ lunches, and lazy dinners alike. Beyond toast, they turn up as a filling for jaffles, alongside sausages and eggs, or stirred into soups and casseroles for extra body.

Baked goods and pastries cover a wide range of products — from pies, tarts, and sausage rolls to croissants, danishes, and sweet slices. What they share is a base of wheat flour combined with fat (butter, margarine, or shortening) to create doughs and batters that are shaped and baked.

In Australia, pastry-based foods are deeply embedded in everyday eating. The meat pie is practically a national icon, bakeries are a fixture of every shopping strip, and the weekend sausage roll run is a suburban tradition. Sweet pastries like vanilla slices, lamingtons, and fruit tarts hold their own alongside these savoury staples.

Active yeast cultures used primarily for leavening bread and baked goods, available in fresh, dry, and instant forms.

Baking and sweet spice blends are pre-mixed combinations of warm spices formulated for desserts, sweet baking, and spiced drinks. The most common version — often labelled “mixed spice” in Australia or “pumpkin pie spice” in American-influenced products — typically combines cinnamon, ginger, nutmeg, allspice, and cloves in varying proportions.

These blends save the home baker from measuring out five or six individual spices. They’re used in fruit cakes, biscuits, spiced muffins, stewed fruit, rice pudding, and warm drinks like chai and spiced lattes. In Australian baking, mixed spice is a classic addition to hot cross buns, Anzac-adjacent biscuits, and Christmas puddings.

Baking chocolate is chocolate in its most unadorned form — pure cocoa mass (also called cocoa liquor) set into blocks or squares with no added sugar, milk, or flavouring. It has an intensely bitter, deeply chocolatey taste that’s too strong to eat on its own but delivers powerful chocolate flavour when combined with sugar in baked goods.

It’s a key ingredient in brownies, chocolate cakes, ganache, and rich chocolate sauces, where the baker controls the sweetness separately. Because it contains both cocoa solids and cocoa butter in their natural proportions, it melts smoothly and gives baked goods a dense, fudgy quality that cocoa powder alone can’t replicate.

The primary chemical leavening agent used to aerate and add volume to baked goods through the release of carbon dioxide.

Standard culinary sodium bicarbonate used as a chemical leavening agent in baking.

Balmain Bug.

Concentrated, dark, and intensely flavored vinegars made from grape must, including traditional and glaze forms.

Bambara Groundnut.

Bamboo is a group of giant grasses comprising over 1,400 species, found naturally across tropical and subtropical regions of Asia, Africa, and the Americas. While bamboo is used for everything from construction to textiles, its culinary use centres on the young shoots — the emerging stems that push up through the soil before they harden into woody canes.

Bamboo shoots have been a staple vegetable in Chinese, Japanese, Thai, Vietnamese, and other Asian cuisines for thousands of years. They have a mild, slightly sweet flavour and a distinctive crisp texture that holds up well in stir-fries, curries, soups, and braised dishes. Fresh bamboo shoots require preparation — most species contain cyanogenic glycosides that must be removed by boiling before eating. In Australia, bamboo shoots are most commonly available canned or vacuum-packed, though fresh shoots can be found in Asian grocery stores, particularly in warmer months.

Bamboo shoots are the emerging sprouts of bamboo, harvested just as they push through the soil. They have a mild, slightly sweet flavour and a satisfying crunch that holds up well in cooking. Fresh shoots need peeling and boiling before use to remove natural bitterness, while tinned shoots — the form most commonly found in Australian shops — are pre-cooked and ready to use.

They’re a staple ingredient across East and Southeast Asian cuisines, appearing in stir-fries, curries, soups, and spring rolls. In Australian kitchens, they turn up most often in Thai and Chinese-style dishes. Their neutral flavour makes them good at absorbing the sauces and seasonings around them, while their texture provides contrast.

Fresh bananas of various varieties and ripeness levels.

Consolidates the general banana melon fruit and the specific Navajo variety into a single archetype.

Banana Pepper.

Consolidates wild and aquacultured banana prawn variations across raw and cooked states into a single reference for the species.

Banana Shallot.

The baobab (Adansonia digitata) is an iconic tree of the African savanna, recognisable by its massive, swollen trunk and sparse canopy. Often called the “tree of life,” it can live for over a thousand years and plays a central role in the ecosystems and cultures of sub-Saharan Africa. Several other Adansonia species exist in Madagascar and one in northwestern Australia (A. gregorii, the boab).

The fruit of the baobab is unusual: rather than ripening into soft flesh, the pulp dries naturally on the branch into a chalky, tart powder. This powder has a citrusy, sherbet-like flavour and is used in drinks, porridges, and as a flavouring. The seeds contain oil that is pressed for culinary and cosmetic use.

The nutrient-dense edible pulp and its common powdered form used as a supplement and food ingredient.

Barley (Hordeum vulgare) is one of the oldest cultivated grains, first domesticated in the Fertile Crescent around 10,000 years ago. It was a dietary staple in ancient civilisations across the Middle East, Europe, and Asia before being largely displaced by wheat and rice in modern diets.

Today, barley’s biggest uses are as animal feed and as the key grain in brewing and distilling — it provides the fermentable sugars for beer and many whiskies. As a food grain, it appears in soups, stews, salads, and as pearl barley (where the outer hull and bran are polished off). Whole-grain or “pot” barley retains more of the bran.

Barnyard Millet.

Barracuda.

Barramundi.

Basa is a type of catfish farmed primarily in the Mekong Delta region of Vietnam. It produces a soft, white fillet with a very mild, almost neutral flavour and no strong fishy taste, which makes it popular with people who prefer a gentle-flavoured fish.

In Australia, basa is one of the most affordable fish fillets on the market, commonly found in supermarket freezer sections. It works well crumbed and pan-fried, baked with a sauce, or used in fish tacos and curries where its mild flavour takes on surrounding seasonings. The fillets are boneless and virtually pin-bone free, making them convenient for quick weeknight meals.

Basil (Ocimum basilicum) is one of the most widely used culinary herbs in the world. Native to tropical regions from central Africa to Southeast Asia, it has been cultivated for thousands of years and is now grown in warm climates globally. The most common culinary variety is sweet basil, with its bright green, slightly cupped leaves and distinctive aroma.

Dozens of basil varieties exist, each with a different flavour profile. Sweet basil dominates Italian cuisine (pesto, caprese salad, pasta sauces), while Thai basil, holy basil, and lemon basil are staples in Southeast Asian cooking. The herb is best used fresh, as its volatile oils dissipate quickly with heat and drying.

A group for basil-based pesto sauces, including generic, commercial, and refrigerated varieties.

Bay Bolete.

Bay Scallop.

The wild-harvested nut of the beaked hazelnut shrub, including traditional regional varieties and preparations.

Beans are the edible seeds (and sometimes pods) of plants in the legume family, encompassing hundreds of species and varieties. The most commonly eaten include kidney beans, black beans, navy beans, pinto beans, cannellini beans, and broad beans (fava beans). Green beans and runner beans are eaten pod and all.

Beans have been cultivated for thousands of years across every inhabited continent. They are a cornerstone of traditional diets in Latin America, Africa, South and East Asia, and the Mediterranean. As legumes, bean plants fix nitrogen in the soil, making them valuable in crop rotations.

Bean-based prepared meals are convenience products centred on cooked, seasoned beans — most commonly as frozen burritos filled with refried or whole beans and cheese, wrapped in a flour tortilla. They’re a staple of the freezer aisle, offering a quick, filling meal that needs only reheating.

These products are designed for speed and convenience — most can be microwaved in a few minutes. While they vary in quality, they provide an accessible way to get a protein-rich, plant-forward meal on the table with minimal effort. Some brands include additional fillings like rice, salsa, or vegetables.

Bear meat is a wild game product with a distinctive, robust flavour that varies significantly depending on the animal’s diet — bears that have been eating berries and vegetation tend to produce milder, sweeter meat, while those feeding on fish can have a stronger, more pungent flavour.

The meat is dark red, coarsely textured, and can be quite fatty, particularly in autumn when bears are preparing for hibernation. It’s traditionally braised, stewed, or slow-roasted to tenderise the tough muscle fibres. Bear meat must always be cooked thoroughly, as it can carry trichinella parasites — it should never be served rare.

The bearded seal (Erignathus barbatus) is a large, solitary seal found in shallow Arctic and sub-Arctic waters across the circumpolar north. It is named for its prominent whiskers, which it uses to find shellfish, crabs, and other bottom-dwelling prey on the sea floor.

Bearded seal has been a critical food source for Inuit, Yupik, and other Indigenous Arctic peoples for thousands of years. Both the meat and blubber are consumed — the blubber is eaten raw, rendered into oil, or used in traditional preparations. The hide is also highly valued for its thickness and durability, traditionally used for boat covers and rope.

Bearded seal meat — from the oogruk, as it’s known in Iñupiaq — is a dense, dark-red wild game meat with a rich, slightly marine flavour. The bearded seal is the largest of the Arctic ice seals, and its meat has been a primary food source for Indigenous communities across Alaska, northern Canada, and Greenland for thousands of years.

The meat is prepared in many ways within traditional foodways — boiled, dried, frozen raw (quaq), or fermented. Different cuts and organs are valued for different qualities, and virtually every part of the animal is used. Seal meat is typically shared communally after a hunt, following cultural protocols around distribution.

Bearded seal oil is produced by slowly rendering the blubber of the bearded seal (oogruk). It’s a pale to golden liquid fat with a mild, slightly fishy flavour that’s used as a dipping sauce, condiment, and preservative across Arctic Indigenous communities.

The oil is a versatile staple — it’s used to dip dried fish and meat, mixed with berries (particularly akutaq, sometimes called ‘Eskimo ice cream’), and used to preserve foods for storage. In a region where cooking oils and fats are historically scarce, seal oil has served as the primary dietary fat for millennia.

Beaver meat is a wild game product that’s surprisingly mild for a game animal — the flavour is often compared to lean beef or pot roast, without the strong gamey taste associated with many wild meats. The meat is dark red, fine-grained, and quite lean, as beavers store most of their fat in their broad, flat tails rather than through the muscle.

Beaver was historically one of the most important food animals for Indigenous peoples and early European settlers across North America. It’s typically slow-cooked — braised, stewed, or roasted — to keep the lean meat from drying out. The tail, rendered of its fat, was considered a particular delicacy.

Bee Balm.

Beechnuts are the seeds of beech trees (genus Fagus), large deciduous hardwoods native to temperate forests across Europe, East Asia, and eastern North America. The small, triangular nuts form inside a prickly husk that splits open when ripe in autumn. European beech (Fagus sylvatica) and American beech (Fagus grandifolia) are the most commonly encountered species.

Beechnuts have a mild, slightly sweet flavour and a high oil content. They were historically an important foraged food and animal feed in Europe, and beechnut oil was pressed for cooking. Today they are rarely eaten commercially, though foragers still collect them. The nuts are small and labour-intensive to shell, which has kept them out of mainstream food markets.

Beech mushrooms, also known as shimeji, are small clustered mushrooms prized in East Asian cooking for their firm texture and gentle, nutty flavour. They come in white (bunapi) and brown (buna) varieties, both growing in tight bouquets with petite caps.

Unlike many mushrooms that soften when cooked, beech mushrooms hold their shape and develop a pleasant bite. They work well in stir-fries, soups, hot pots, and pasta dishes. They have a mild bitterness when raw that disappears completely with cooking — they should always be cooked before eating.

The edible seeds of the beech tree, commonly referred to as beechnuts, including their dried and raw seed forms.

Standard cuts, roasts, and ground meat derived from adult cattle, including prime, choice, and grass-fed varieties.

Beef dinner baby foods are ready-to-eat meals designed for infants and toddlers who are progressing to more complex textures and flavours. They typically combine puréed or finely diced beef with vegetables such as carrot, potato, and peas, along with soft dumpling or pasta pieces, in a mild sauce or gravy.

These products are formulated to provide protein and iron from the beef alongside vegetables, in textures appropriate for the target age group. Junior-texture varieties have slightly more texture than first-stage purées, encouraging babies to develop chewing skills.

Processed meat products, shelf-stable snacks, and pre-assembled beef-based entrees.

Beefalo is a fertile hybrid animal bred from domestic cattle and American bison (buffalo). The cross was developed to combine the hardiness, lean meat, and foraging ability of bison with the docility and higher yield of domestic cattle. True beefalo are defined as being three-eighths bison and five-eighths domestic cattle.

The meat is leaner than conventional beef with a flavour that falls between beef and bison — richer and slightly sweeter than standard beef, but milder than full bison. It can be used in any recipe calling for beef, though the lower fat content means it benefits from slightly gentler cooking to avoid drying out.

Fermented malt beverages and malted drinks primarily based on barley.

Beet refers broadly to cultivated varieties of Beta vulgaris used as an industrial crop rather than a table vegetable. The most significant variety is the sugar beet, which supplies roughly 20% of the world’s sugar. Other varieties are grown for livestock feed or as a source of natural food colourants like betanin (E162).

Beet has been cultivated since antiquity in the Mediterranean region, though its transformation into a major sugar crop didn’t occur until the 18th century, when Prussian chemists developed methods to extract sucrose from the root. Today it is a cornerstone crop in temperate agriculture across Europe, North America, and parts of Asia.

Beet greens are the leaves and stems attached to beetroot bulbs. They are entirely edible and have a flavour profile similar to silverbeet (chard) — earthy, slightly mineral, with tender leaves and crunchy red-veined stems. Young leaves are mild enough for salads, while mature greens are best cooked.

Often discarded or overlooked, beet greens are a genuine two-for-one when you buy fresh beetroot with tops attached. They can be sautéed with garlic and olive oil, wilted into pasta, added to soups, or used anywhere you might use silverbeet or spinach. The stems take a little longer to cook than the leaves, so it helps to add them to the pan first.

The primary edible root of the beet plant, encompassing both its fresh state and its common pickled preparation.

Focuses on the forced, blanched cultivars of chicory known as Witloof or Belgian Endive.

The beluga sturgeon (Huso huso) is one of the largest freshwater fish in the world, capable of exceeding 5 metres in length and living over 100 years. It is native to the Caspian Sea, Black Sea, and their tributary rivers, though its range has contracted dramatically due to overfishing and habitat loss.

Beluga caviar — the salt-cured roe of this species — is among the most expensive foods on earth, historically commanding prices of several thousand dollars per kilogram. The roe is prized for its large, soft eggs and delicate flavour. This extreme value has been both the species’ economic significance and its near-undoing.

The beluga whale (Delphinapterus leucas) is a toothed whale found throughout Arctic and sub-Arctic waters. Recognisable by its white skin and bulbous forehead, it is one of the smaller whale species, typically reaching 3–5 metres in length.

Beluga whale is a traditional food of significant cultural and nutritional importance to Inuit, Inupiat, and other Indigenous peoples of the Arctic. Virtually every part of the animal is used: the skin and blubber (known as muktuk) are eaten raw, frozen, or cooked; the meat is dried or fermented; and organs including the liver and eyes are consumed. These foods have sustained Arctic communities for thousands of years in an environment where plant-based foods are scarce.

The nutrient-dense fat layer of the whale and its rendered oil products.

The whale’s flippers, treated as a distinct anatomical and culinary part.

Standard muscle meat from the beluga whale, including raw and dried preparations common in Alaska Native diets.

Internal organ meats and specialty parts such as the liver and eyes.

Bergamot Orange.

The canonical entry for generic berries, encompassing the whole fruit and common processed variants like jam.

Berry smoothies are thick, blended drinks made from a combination of berry fruits — commonly strawberries, blueberries, raspberries, and blackberries — often combined with fruit juices, purées, or other ingredients to create a smooth, drinkable consistency.

Commercial berry smoothies are sold refrigerated and ready to drink, positioned as a convenient fruit-based snack or light meal. They are typically sweet and vibrant in colour, with the specific berry blend varying by brand.

Berry snack bars are portable, shelf-stable bars that combine dried or processed berries with cereals, sugars, and binding agents to create a convenient grab-and-go snack. They typically feature a mix of berry types such as strawberry, blueberry, and raspberry.

These bars sit within the broader category of fruit and cereal snack bars and are popular for lunchboxes, hiking, and on-the-go eating. Formulations vary widely — some are closer to a muesli bar with berry pieces, while others are more like a compressed fruit leather.

Betel (Piper betle) is a perennial vine in the pepper family, cultivated for its glossy, heart-shaped leaves. The leaves are most commonly used as a wrapper for betel quid — a chewing preparation that typically includes areca nut, slaked lime, and sometimes tobacco or spices. This practice has deep cultural roots across South Asia, Southeast Asia, and parts of the Pacific.

Betel chewing is one of the oldest and most widespread psychoactive habits in the world, with archaeological evidence dating back thousands of years. The leaves themselves have a peppery, slightly astringent flavour and contain mild stimulant compounds. In some culinary traditions, betel leaves are also used to wrap small parcels of food.

Bigeye Tuna.

Birch trees (genus Betula) are widespread across the Northern Hemisphere, found throughout boreal and temperate forests. Several species — particularly silver birch (B. pendula) and paper birch (B. papyrifera) — have long been tapped for their sap, which flows freely in early spring before the leaves emerge.

Birch sap is a clear, slightly sweet liquid with a faintly woody flavour. It has been consumed as a traditional spring tonic across Scandinavia, Russia, the Baltic states, and by Indigenous peoples of North America for centuries. It can be drunk fresh, fermented into birch beer or wine, or reduced into a syrup (though it takes roughly 100 litres of sap to make one litre of syrup, compared to about 40:1 for maple).

Bird’s eye chilli (Capsicum annuum or C. frutescens, depending on the variety) is a small, slender chilli pepper typically 2–4 cm long. Despite its size, it packs considerable heat — generally ranging from 50,000 to 100,000 Scoville units, putting it well above jalapeños but below habaneros.

It is a defining ingredient in Thai, Vietnamese, Malaysian, and Indonesian cuisines, where it appears in everything from stir-fries and curries to dipping sauces and salads. The Thai variety (prik khi nu) is sometimes called “mouse-dropping chilli” for its small size. In Australia, bird’s eye chillies are widely available fresh and are a common starting point for people exploring hotter varieties.

Bison.

Bitter gourd (Momordica charantia), also known as bitter melon or karela, is a tropical and subtropical vine in the cucurbit family. Its fruit is unmistakable — elongated, covered in ridges or bumps, and intensely bitter. The bitterness comes from compounds called momordicins and is the whole point: bitter gourd is prized precisely for this quality in cuisines that value bitter as a distinct flavour note.

It features prominently in the cooking of India, China, Southeast Asia, and the Caribbean, appearing in stir-fries, curries, soups, stuffed dishes, and pickles. The young leafy tips of the vine are also eaten as a green vegetable in parts of Southeast Asia and the Pacific. Various preparation techniques — salting, blanching, pairing with strong flavours — are used to moderate the bitterness to taste.

Bitter gourd leaves are the edible foliage of the same vine that produces bitter melon (bitter gourd pods). The young leaves and growing tips are harvested and cooked as a leafy green, particularly in Filipino, Indian, and Southeast Asian cuisines.

The leaves carry a milder bitterness than the pods and have a slightly earthy, green flavour. They are most commonly sautéed with garlic and onion, added to soups, or used in stews. In Filipino cooking, they feature in dishes like tinola and pinakbet.

Bitter gourd — also known as bitter melon — is one of the most polarising vegetables in the kitchen. Its pronounced bitterness is an acquired taste, but it is deeply loved across Indian, Chinese, Filipino, and Southeast Asian cuisines where it features in stir-fries, curries, soups, and stuffed preparations.

The pods are typically pale to dark green with a bumpy, ridged skin. They are usually sliced, salted, or blanched before cooking to temper the bitterness. Common preparations include stir-frying with egg and fermented black beans (Chinese style), stuffing with spiced mince (Indian style), or adding to sour soups (Filipino sinigang).

Bitter Melon.

Black beans (Phaseolus vulgaris) are a variety of common bean with a distinctive jet-black skin and creamy white interior. They have a dense, slightly sweet, earthy flavour and a satisfying meaty texture that holds up well in slow-cooked dishes.

Black beans are a staple food across Central and South America and the Caribbean, where they have been cultivated for at least 7,000 years. They are foundational to dishes like Brazilian feijoada, Cuban black beans and rice (moros y cristianos), and Mexican refried beans. In recent decades, they have become widely popular in Australia, appearing in everything from burritos to salads to veggie burgers.

Black bean soup is a rich, filling soup with earthy, slightly smoky flavours drawn from slow-cooked black beans. It typically includes onion, garlic, cumin, and sometimes a splash of lime or sherry to brighten the flavour.

As a condensed canned product, it’s designed to be diluted with water or stock before heating. This makes it a convenient pantry staple that comes together in minutes.

Black bean soup has its roots in Latin American and Caribbean cooking, where black beans are a dietary cornerstone. It’s naturally high in fibre and plant protein, making it a popular choice for simple, satisfying meals.

The primary archetype for whole black beans, encompassing raw, dried, boiled, and canned preparations.

The American black bear (Ursus americanus) is the most common bear species in North America, found across forests from Alaska to Mexico. It is an omnivore with a varied diet of berries, nuts, insects, fish, and occasionally larger prey.

Black bear meat has been consumed by Indigenous peoples of North America for thousands of years and remains a food source through regulated sport hunting and subsistence harvesting. The meat is dark, coarsely grained, and has a flavour that varies considerably depending on the bear’s diet — berry-fed bears produce milder, sweeter meat, while those feeding on fish or carrion can taste stronger.

Standard cuts and regional preparations of black bear muscle meat.

Black gram (Vigna mungo), also known as urad dal, is a bean native to the Indian subcontinent. It is small, oval, and black-skinned, with a white interior that is revealed when the bean is split or husked. It should not be confused with black beans (Phaseolus vulgaris), which are an entirely different species from the Americas.

Black gram is one of the most important pulses in Indian cuisine. Whole, it is simmered into rich, creamy dals — most famously dal makhani. Split and husked (white urad dal), it is used as a seasoning element in South Indian tempering. Ground into a paste, it is the key ingredient in dosa and idli batters, where its natural mucilage provides the fermentation and texture that define these dishes. It is also the base for papadums.

Black Grouper.

Black Koji.

Black Morel.

Black mustard (Brassica nigra) is an annual plant in the cabbage family, grown for its small, dark brown to black seeds. These seeds are more pungent than their yellow or brown mustard counterparts, delivering a sharp, nose-clearing heat when crushed or ground and mixed with liquid.

Black mustard seeds are a foundational spice in Indian cooking, where they are typically the first ingredient into hot oil for a tadka (tempering) — they pop and crackle, releasing a nutty, slightly bitter aroma that forms the flavour base of countless dishes. In European tradition, black mustard was the original ingredient in prepared mustards before being largely replaced by brown mustard (B. juncea), which is easier to harvest mechanically.

Canonical black pepper products including whole peppercorns, ground spices, and botanical fruit references.

Black Radish.

Black Sapote.

Black Sea Bass.

Black soybeans are varieties of Glycine max with a dark black seed coat, distinguishing them from the more common yellow soybeans that dominate global production. They have a slightly sweeter, nuttier flavour than yellow soybeans and a firmer texture that holds up well in cooking.

Black soybeans have a long history in Chinese, Japanese, and Korean cuisines. In China, they are fermented into douchi (fermented black beans), the pungent, salty ingredient essential to dishes like mapo tofu and black bean sauce. In Japan, they are simmered with sugar and soy sauce to make kuromame, a traditional New Year’s dish. In Korea, they are braised in a sweet soy glaze (kongjaban) as a banchan side dish.

Black tea is the most popular type of tea in Australia and across much of the Western world. It is made from the leaves of the tea plant that have been fully oxidised, giving the brew its characteristic deep amber to reddish-brown colour and bold, malty, sometimes astringent flavour.

Common varieties include English Breakfast, Earl Grey (scented with bergamot oil), Irish Breakfast, and single-origin teas like Assam, Darjeeling, and Ceylon. In Australia, a simple cup of black tea — often just called “a cuppa” — remains a daily ritual for millions of people.

The primary archetype for Black Tiger Prawn, encompassing raw flesh and common prepared or aquacultured variants.

Black Truffle.

Black Trumpet.

Black turtle beans are the most common type of black bean found in shops, with a small, oval shape, shiny black skin, and dense, meaty texture when cooked. They have a slightly earthy, mushroom-like flavour and hold their shape well through long cooking.

They are the classic bean for Brazilian feijoada, Cuban black beans and rice, Mexican refried beans, and Tex-Mex burritos and tacos. In Australia, they’re a go-to pantry staple for vegetarian chilli, bean salads, and hearty soups.

The edible kernel of the Eastern Black Walnut tree, encompassing both the raw nut part and dried preparations.

Black Winter Truffle.

The black-eyed pea (Vigna unguiculata) is a subspecies of cowpea, one of the oldest cultivated crops in the world. Despite the name, it is a bean rather than a pea. It is identifiable by its cream-coloured skin and the characteristic black or dark eye where it was attached to the pod.

Black-eyed peas originated in West Africa and were carried to the Americas through the transatlantic slave trade, becoming deeply embedded in the foodways of the American South. They are a key ingredient in dishes like Hoppin’ John and are traditionally eaten on New Year’s Day for good luck. In West Africa, they remain a dietary staple, used in everything from stews to akara (fried bean fritters).

Consolidates generic, dry, canned, and whole seed forms of black-eyed peas into a single navigational archetype.

Blackberry.

Blackcurrant.

Blood Orange.

Blue agave (Agave tequilana, specifically the Weber Azul variety) is a large succulent plant native to the arid highlands of western Mexico, particularly the state of Jalisco. It is the sole permitted species for the production of tequila under Mexican law.

The plant grows for six to eight years before its piña — the dense, pineapple-shaped heart — is harvested. This piña is rich in inulin, a complex carbohydrate that can be converted into fermentable sugars for tequila production or processed into agave syrup, a liquid sweetener.

Blue Catfish.

Blue Corn.

Blue Crab.

Blue grenadier (Macruronus novaezelandiae), also known as hoki in New Zealand, is a deep-water species found in the Southern Ocean around Australia and New Zealand. It is one of Australia’s most commercially important fish species and a mainstay of the domestic retail fish market.

The fish is typically found at depths of 200 to 800 metres and can grow to around a metre in length. Its flesh is white, soft-textured, and mild in flavour, which makes it popular with consumers who prefer less assertive-tasting fish. It is commonly sold as fresh or frozen fillets and is a frequent choice for fish and chips.

Blue grenadier, widely known as hoki, is one of Australia’s most popular white fish. Its fillets are pale, flaky, and have a clean, mild flavour that makes them a reliable choice for everyday cooking.

Hoki is a staple of the Australian frozen fish aisle and fish and chip shops alike. The fillets take well to crumbing, pan-frying, and baking, and their neutral taste pairs easily with lemon, tartare sauce, or Asian-style dressings. It’s a good entry point for people who find stronger-flavoured fish off-putting.

Blue Mussel.

Blue Oyster Mushroom.

Consolidates raw and prepared blue sprat flesh with skin and bones into a single canonical fish archetype.

The blue swimming crab (Portunus pelagicus) is a species of swimming crab found throughout the Indo-Pacific, from eastern Africa and the Red Sea through Southeast Asia to Australia and Japan. It gets its name from its blue colouring (in males) and its flattened rear legs, which are adapted for swimming.

Blue swimming crabs are one of the most commercially important crab species in the Indo-Pacific region. In Australia, they are caught in estuaries and shallow coastal waters across the northern and eastern states. Internationally, they support major fisheries and aquaculture operations in the Philippines, Indonesia, Thailand, and India.

Groups the primary lump muscle part and its pasteurized, refrigerated commercial form.

Covers whole blueberries in raw, frozen, canned, and dried forms, including basic fruit components.

Blueberries are the fruit of several species within the genus Vaccinium, primarily V. corymbosum (highbush blueberry) and V. angustifolium (lowbush or wild blueberry). They are native to North America, where wild blueberries have been gathered by Indigenous peoples for thousands of years.

Commercial blueberry cultivation began in the early twentieth century in the United States and has since expanded globally. Australia has become a significant producer, with farms concentrated in New South Wales, Victoria, and Western Australia, taking advantage of counter-seasonal supply to Northern Hemisphere markets. The fruit is now grown commercially on every inhabited continent.

Blueberry pie is a traditional baked dessert featuring a generous filling of blueberries — sweetened and lightly thickened — enclosed in a shortcrust or flaky pastry shell. It’s one of those straightforward bakes where the quality of the fruit does most of the heavy lifting.

The filling typically combines blueberries with sugar, a touch of lemon juice, and a thickener like cornflour or tapioca starch, which sets the juices into a glossy, spoonable consistency as it cools. Some recipes use a lattice top to let steam escape and show off the purple filling; others go for a full double crust.

Blueberry yogurt baby food is a puréed dessert designed for infants, blending the sweetness of blueberries with the mild tang of yogurt into a smooth, easily swallowed consistency.

This type of product is typically introduced during the later stages of weaning, once a baby has been exposed to both fruit and dairy individually. The straining process removes any seeds, skin fragments, or lumps, producing a uniform texture suitable for spoon-feeding.

Bluefin tuna is the most sought-after tuna species in the world. Its flesh is dense, deep red, and distinctly rich — closer in character to beef than to most other fish. The fattier cuts, particularly the belly (toro), have a melt-in-the-mouth quality that commands extraordinary prices.

In Australian waters, southern bluefin tuna is the primary species, with a major ranching industry based in Port Lincoln, South Australia. Much of this production is exported to Japan for sashimi and sushi, but it’s increasingly available in Australian restaurants and fishmongers. The flesh is best enjoyed raw or barely seared — overcooking turns it dry and loses the qualities that make it special.

Bluefish is an aggressive predatory species found in temperate and subtropical waters around the world. Its flesh is darker and more assertive in flavour than most white fish — oily, rich, and distinctly “fishy” in a way that divides opinion. Fans love its intensity; others find it overpowering.

The key to good bluefish is freshness. The high oil content means the flesh deteriorates faster than leaner species, and stale bluefish is genuinely unpleasant. When fresh, it’s excellent grilled, smoked, or baked with bold accompaniments — garlic, chilli, mustard, or citrus all work well to complement its strong character.

Bok choy is one of Australia’s most widely used Asian vegetables. It has thick, juicy white stems that stay crunchy when cooked and soft dark-green leaves that wilt down quickly — giving you two textures in one vegetable.

It’s a staple of stir-fries, soups, and steamed dishes, and takes only minutes to cook. Baby bok choy can be halved and cooked whole; larger heads are best separated into individual stems. The flavour is mild and slightly sweet, making it a good carrier for sauces — oyster sauce, garlic, and ginger are classic pairings.

Botrytis is a genus of fungi, with Botrytis cinerea being the most well-known species. In most agricultural contexts, it is a destructive plant pathogen that causes grey mould, affecting a wide range of fruit, vegetable, and ornamental crops.

However, Botrytis cinerea has a celebrated role in winemaking. Under specific climatic conditions — misty mornings followed by warm, dry afternoons — the fungus infects ripe grapes in a controlled way known as noble rot (pourriture noble). Rather than destroying the grapes, it perforates the skin, allowing water to evaporate and concentrating the sugars and flavour compounds. This process produces some of the world’s most prized dessert wines, including French Sauternes, Hungarian Tokaji, and German Trockenbeerenauslese.

Bottle Gourd.

Bottled still water is simply drinking water that’s been treated, filtered, or sourced from a natural spring and packaged in a sealed container. It contains no carbonation, flavouring, or additives.

In Australia, bottled water is widely available in sizes from small single-serve bottles to large multi-litre containers for home or office use. Some brands market themselves as spring or mineral water from specific geographic sources, while others are purified municipal water. The practical differences for everyday drinking are minimal.

Rendered fats, suet, and separable adipose tissues used for cooking and processing.

The bowhead whale (Balaena mysticetus) is a massive baleen whale that lives entirely in Arctic and subarctic waters. It is one of the longest-lived mammals on Earth, with some individuals estimated to exceed 200 years of age. Adults can reach 18 metres in length and weigh up to 100 tonnes.

Bowhead whales were heavily targeted by commercial whaling from the seventeenth to the early twentieth century, which severely depleted most populations. Commercial hunting has been banned since 1946, and some stocks have recovered substantially, though others remain at low levels.

The thick layer of vascularized adipose tissue (fat) harvested from the bowhead whale.

Muktuk is a traditional Iñupiat and Inuit food consisting of the bowhead whale’s outer skin (the dark, rubbery epidermis) with a layer of blubber still attached. It’s one of the most culturally significant foods in Arctic Indigenous communities and is typically the first part of the whale to be shared after a successful hunt.

The texture is distinctive — the dark skin is chewy and slightly crunchy, while the pale blubber beneath is soft and fatty. Muktuk is most commonly eaten raw and fresh, sometimes dipped in soy sauce, or it may be pickled, frozen, or fermented. The flavour is mild and nutty, with a clean marine quality.

Bowhead whale oil is a rendered fat produced from the blubber of the bowhead whale. For Arctic Indigenous communities, it has served as a vital cooking fat, preservative, and calorie source for millennia — essential for survival in a climate where few other fat sources are available.

The oil is liquid at room temperature, with a rich marine flavour. Traditionally, it’s used as a dipping condiment for dried fish and meat, mixed into other foods for added richness, and used to preserve berries and other seasonal foods. It plays a similar cultural role to olive oil in Mediterranean cooking — a foundational fat that ties the cuisine together.

Boysenberry.

Primary forms of the Brazil nut, encompassing raw, dried, and blanched whole kernels and seeds.

Brazilian peppertree (Schinus terebinthifolia) is an evergreen tree native to subtropical and tropical South America. Its small, bright pink-red berries have a mild peppery flavour with sweet, resinous notes — quite different from true black pepper, though they’re often marketed alongside it.

The tree is a member of the cashew family (Anacardiaceae), not the pepper family, so the name is somewhat misleading. It has become naturalised in many warm regions around the world, including parts of Queensland and northern New South Wales, where it is considered an invasive weed. In its native range and in places like Réunion Island, the dried berries are a valued culinary spice.

Leavened staple breads encompassing white, wholemeal, sourdough, and enriched varieties like brioche.

Processed wheat products used as culinary coatings, fillers, or garnishes, including Japanese panko and seasoned croutons.

Breaded whitefish products are portions of mild white fish — typically hoki, hake, or similar species — coated in batter or breadcrumbs, frozen, and sold ready to cook. They are a convenience staple in Australian freezers, offering a quick midweek dinner option that requires minimal preparation.

These products are designed to be baked in the oven rather than deep-fried, producing a crispy exterior without the need for added oil. They are commonly served with chips, salad, or vegetables, and are a familiar part of the fish-and-chips tradition adapted for home cooking.

Breadfruit.

Breadnut.

Breakfast cereals based on corn flakes are among the most recognisable packaged foods in the world. Made from milled corn that is cooked, flattened into thin flakes, and toasted until golden and crisp, they offer a mild, slightly sweet flavour that serves as a neutral base for milk, fruit, and other toppings.

In Australia, corn flake cereals are a breakfast staple found in most supermarket aisles. They are typically fortified with added vitamins and minerals. Beyond breakfast, crushed corn flakes are a popular coating for baked chicken, a topping for casseroles, and a key ingredient in classic no-bake treats like honey joys and chocolate crackles.

Bream is a broad common name applied to many different fish species across the world. In Australia, it most often refers to yellowfin bream (Acanthopagrus australis) and black bream (Acanthopagrus butcheri), both popular targets for recreational and commercial fishing in estuaries and coastal waters.

These are medium-sized fish with firm, white, mildly flavoured flesh. They’re well-suited to a range of cooking methods including pan-frying, grilling, baking, and steaming. Australian bream are an important part of the coastal food web and a staple of estuary fishing culture.

Bream is one of Australia’s most commonly caught fish, found in estuaries, rivers, and coastal waters along much of the eastern and southern coastline. The fillets are white, mild in flavour, and relatively fine-textured, making them well suited to a range of cooking methods.

Bream fillets work well pan-fried with a squeeze of lemon, baked whole, grilled, or steamed with Asian-style aromatics. The flesh is delicate enough that it benefits from gentle handling and relatively quick cooking. Skin-on fillets crisp up nicely in a hot pan.

Standard drip or filter coffee brewed from ground beans, including decaffeinated and specific blends.

Brill.

Broad beans (Vicia faba), also called fava beans, are one of the oldest cultivated crops, with archaeological evidence of their use stretching back thousands of years in the Mediterranean and Middle East. They produce large, flat seeds inside thick, padded pods.

The beans are eaten at two main stages: young and green (immature seeds), when they have a sweet, grassy flavour and tender texture, or dried and mature, when they become starchy and earthy. Dried broad beans are a staple in cuisines from Egypt (ful medames) to China, while fresh broad beans are prized in European and Middle Eastern cooking.

Broad whitefish (Coregonus nasus) is a large freshwater fish native to cold rivers, lakes, and coastal brackish waters across the Arctic and subarctic regions of North America and Siberia. It can grow to over 60 cm in length and several kilograms in weight.

The species is a cornerstone of traditional Indigenous food systems across Alaska, northern Canada, and Arctic Russia. Virtually every part of the fish is used — the flesh is eaten raw (frozen and sliced), boiled, smoked, or dried, while the head (including eyes, cheeks, and soft bones) and liver are considered delicacies with high cultural and nutritional significance.

Groups edible organs and anatomical parts of the broad whitefish, including traditional Alaska Native preparations of the head and liver.

Broccoflower.

Broccoli is one of the most popular vegetables in Australia, recognised by its tight clusters of green florets sitting atop sturdy, pale stems. It belongs to the brassica family alongside cauliflower, cabbage, and Brussels sprouts, and has a mild, slightly earthy flavour that becomes sweeter when cooked.

Broccoli is remarkably versatile in the kitchen. It can be steamed, blanched, roasted, stir-fried, or eaten raw in salads and with dips. Roasting at high heat brings out a nutty, caramelised character that converts many self-declared broccoli sceptics. The stems are just as edible as the florets — peeled and sliced, they add a pleasant crunch to slaws and stir-fries.

Broccoli raab (also known as rapini or cime di rapa) is a leafy green vegetable that, despite its name, is more closely related to turnips than to broccoli. It features slender stems, broad leaves, and scattered clusters of small flower buds, all of which are edible.

The flavour is distinctly more bitter and peppery than regular broccoli, which makes it a favourite in Italian cooking where it is often blanched and then sautéed with garlic, chilli, and olive oil. It pairs well with orecchiette pasta, sausages, and strong-flavoured cheeses.

Broccoli Rabe.

Broccolini.

Brook Trout.

Brown algae (class Phaeophyceae) are a large and diverse group of marine seaweeds that include some of the most familiar and commercially important species — kelp, wakame, kombu, and bladderwrack among them. They get their characteristic brown-green colour from the pigment fucoxanthin.

While many brown algae species are eaten directly as food (particularly in East Asian cuisines), their cell walls are also the primary industrial source of alginates — polysaccharides extracted and used as thickening, gelling, and stabilising agents across the food industry. Alginates appear in products ranging from ice cream and salad dressings to processed meats and bakery fillings.

Brown bean is a general term for several varieties of common bean (Phaseolus vulgaris) with brown-coloured skin. In Scandinavian cooking, Swedish brown beans (bruna bönor) are a traditional staple, slow-cooked with syrup and vinegar into a sweet-savoury side dish. In other contexts, the term may refer to various brown-skinned bean varieties used in Latin American, African, or Asian cuisines.

Like all common beans, brown beans are a good source of plant protein and dietary fibre. They have a mild, earthy flavour and a creamy texture when cooked, making them versatile in soups, stews, casseroles, and baked bean dishes.

Mature brown bean seeds and their dry technical variants.

Brown Beech Mushroom.

Brown mustard (Brassica juncea), also called Indian mustard or Chinese mustard, produces small round seeds that range from dark yellow to brown-black. These seeds are hotter and more pungent than the milder yellow mustard seeds, with a sharp, nose-clearing heat that develops when the seeds are crushed or ground and mixed with liquid.

Brown mustard seeds are fundamental to Indian cooking, where they’re often the first ingredient in the pan — popped in hot oil until they splutter, releasing a nutty aroma. They’re also the primary ingredient in Dijon mustard and many whole-grain mustards. The plant’s leaves (mustard greens) are eaten as a vegetable in many Asian cuisines.

Brown Shrimp.

Refined white sugar with varying amounts of molasses added back for moisture and flavor.

Consolidates the generic flesh part and specific wild raw preparation of the brown tiger prawn.

Brown Trout.

Browntop Millet.

Brussels Sprout.

Buckwheat.

Buddhas Hand.

A prime cut of buffalo meat taken from the rib section, including riverine and swamp varieties.

General water buffalo meat and muscle tissue, including various culinary preparations.

Fresh fluid milk and standard milk products derived from water buffalo.

A lean cut of meat from the hindquarter of the buffalo, commonly used for roasting or braising.

Burbot.

Burdock (Arctium lappa) is a hardy biennial plant native to Europe and Asia, now found across most temperate regions of the world. While often considered a weed in the West, its long, brown-skinned taproot has been cultivated and eaten as a vegetable in East Asia for centuries — especially in Japan, where it’s called gobo and features in everyday dishes.

The root has a crisp texture when fresh and an earthy, mildly sweet flavour with a slight bitterness. It’s commonly used in stir-fries (kinpira gobo), soups, rice dishes, and pickles in Japanese cuisine. In Korean cooking (ueong), it’s often braised or used in kimbap. The root can grow to over a metre long and a few centimetres in diameter.

The slender, earth-toned taproot of the burdock plant, presented in its raw form and basic boiled preparations.

Burgundy Truffle.

Bush tomato (primarily Solanum centrale, also called desert raisin or kutjera) is a small perennial shrub native to the arid and semi-arid regions of central Australia. The fruit is a small berry, about 1–2 cm across, that dries naturally on the bush in the hot desert climate. Despite the name, it is not closely related to the common tomato, though both are in the Solanaceae family.

Bush tomato has been a staple food of Aboriginal peoples in central Australia for thousands of years, traditionally gathered from wild plants after the fruit has dried on the bush. The dried fruit has an intense, complex flavour — often described as a mix of caramel, tamarillo, and sun-dried tomato with earthy, savoury undertones.

Butter blends combine dairy butter with vegetable oils to create a spread that is softer and easier to use straight from the fridge than pure butter, while retaining some of butter’s characteristic flavour. Reduced-calorie versions contain a higher proportion of water and emulsifiers to lower the overall fat content.

They are a practical choice for everyday spreading on toast and sandwiches, and can be used in some cooking applications, though they are not always suitable for baking or high-heat frying due to their higher water content. The flavour sits between butter and margarine.

Soft-leaved varieties including Boston, Bibb, and Mignonette known for their tender texture.

Butterbur — known as fuki in Japanese — is a perennial plant whose thick, hollow leaf stalks are eaten as a vegetable in East Asian cuisines. The stalks have a distinctive mild bitterness and herbaceous aroma, with a texture similar to celery but firmer.

In Japanese cooking, fuki is typically peeled, blanched, and simmered in dashi-based broths as a side dish, or preserved in a sweet miso paste (fuki-miso) as a condiment for rice. It is considered a seasonal spring delicacy and is associated with mountain vegetable (sansai) cuisine. The young flower buds (fuki-no-tō) are also eaten, often as tempura.

Butterfish is a name applied to several species of small to medium-sized fish known for their soft, oil-rich flesh and mild, delicate flavour. The name reflects the buttery texture and mouthfeel of the cooked meat, which practically melts on the tongue.

The flesh is well suited to simple preparations — pan-frying, grilling, or steaming — where its natural richness can shine without heavy sauces. It is popular in Japanese cuisine as a grilled or simmered fish, and works well with clean Asian-style flavours like ginger, soy, and mirin.

Butterfly pea (Clitoria ternatea) is a tropical legume native to Southeast Asia, now grown across the tropics for its striking deep-blue flowers. The flowers contain anthocyanin pigments that produce an intense blue colour when steeped in water — and famously change to purple or pink when an acid like lemon juice is added.

The flowers have been used for centuries in Southeast Asian cooking, particularly in Malaysian and Thai cuisines, where they colour rice dishes (nasi kerabu), desserts, and drinks. In recent years, butterfly pea flower has gained global popularity as a natural blue food colouring and as the base for colour-changing cocktails, teas, and lemonades.

Butternut (Juglans cinerea), also known as white walnut, is a medium-sized deciduous tree native to eastern North America. It produces oblong, ridged nuts enclosed in a thick, sticky green husk. The nuts have a rich, sweet, distinctly oily flavour — often described as milder and more buttery than black walnuts.

Butternuts were an important food source for Indigenous peoples of eastern North America and for early European settlers. The nuts were eaten raw, cooked into porridges, or pressed for their oil. The tree’s inner bark was also used to make a brown-orange dye, and the wood is valued for carving and furniture.

Fresh butternut squash in its raw state and standard home-cooked preparations including baked and boiled variants.

This baby food combines butternut squash and sweet corn into a smooth, mild purée suitable for young children being introduced to solid foods. The natural sweetness of both vegetables makes it an appealing early food that most babies accept readily.

Butternut squash provides a creamy, smooth base while the corn adds a slightly sweeter note and different flavour dimension. The combination introduces babies to vegetable flavours in a gentle, palatable way.

Butternuts — also called white walnuts — are the edible seeds of Juglans cinerea, a tree native to eastern North America and closely related to the common walnut. They have a rich, distinctly oily and buttery flavour that is sweeter and milder than regular walnuts, with a softer texture.

The nuts can be eaten on their own as a snack, added to baked goods, or used in confections and ice cream. Their high oil content gives them a luxurious mouthfeel but also means they turn rancid relatively quickly, so they are best stored in the fridge or freezer after shelling.

Consolidates the botanical fruit part with its standard raw and boiled culinary preparations.

Cabbage is a leafy vegetable from the species Brassica oleracea, closely related to broccoli, cauliflower, and kale. It grows as a tight, layered head of leaves and comes in several varieties — green, red (purple), savoy (crinkly-leafed), and white (sometimes called Dutch) cabbage. Each variety has a slightly different flavour and texture, but all share a mild, slightly peppery taste.

Cabbage has been cultivated for thousands of years, with origins in the Mediterranean and western Europe. It became a staple crop across Europe and Asia because it grows readily in cool climates, stores well, and can be preserved through fermentation — sauerkraut and kimchi being the most well-known examples.

Cacao (Theobroma cacao) is a tropical tree native to the deep rainforests of Central and South America. Its large, colourful pods grow directly from the trunk and branches, each containing 20 to 60 seeds embedded in a sweet, white pulp. These seeds — commonly called cocoa beans — are the starting point for all chocolate and cocoa products.

Cacao has been cultivated for at least 3,000 years. The Olmec, Maya, and Aztec civilisations used cacao beans to make drinks, as currency, and in religious ceremonies. Following European colonisation of the Americas, cacao cultivation spread to West Africa, Southeast Asia, and other tropical regions. Today, the majority of the world’s cacao is grown in West Africa, with Côte d’Ivoire and Ghana being the largest producers.

Caesars Mushroom.

Calabash, also known as bottle gourd or long melon, is a versatile gourd with smooth, pale green skin and spongy white flesh. When harvested young for eating, it has a mild, slightly sweet flavour similar to zucchini or choko, and a tender texture that absorbs other flavours well.

It’s a staple vegetable in many Asian cuisines — popular in Indian curries and dals, Chinese stir-fries and soups, and Southeast Asian stews. The flesh cooks down quickly and works well in braises and slow-cooked dishes. In Australia, calabash is readily found at Asian grocers and some farmers’ markets.

Groups the fresh flesh of the calabash gourd with its traditional dried culinary form, Kanpyo.

Calamansi.

Calf refers to young cattle slaughtered for veal, typically between a few weeks and about 12 months of age depending on the production system. The meat is distinguished from beef by its lighter colour (pink to pale red), finer grain, more delicate flavour, and tender texture.

Veal has a long history in European cuisines — particularly Italian, French, and Austrian cooking — where it’s used in dishes like osso buco, Wiener schnitzel, and blanquette de veau. Various cuts are used, including leg, shoulder, shank (foreshank), and offal such as sweetbreads (thymus), tongue, and tripe (stomach lining).

Camas (Camassia species, primarily Camassia quamash) is a perennial bulb plant native to western North America. It grows in moist meadows and prairies, producing tall spikes of blue to purple flowers in spring. The starchy bulbs, which resemble small onions, have been a critically important food source for Indigenous peoples of the Pacific Northwest for thousands of years.

The bulbs are rich in inulin, a complex carbohydrate that converts to fructose during prolonged cooking. Traditionally, camas bulbs were slow-roasted in earth ovens for one to three days, transforming them into a sweet, dark, caramelised food that could be dried and stored for months. Camas meadows were actively managed through controlled burning to maintain growing conditions.

Camels used for food in Australia are primarily dromedaries (Camelus dromedarius), the single-humped species. Australia has the world’s largest population of feral dromedaries — descendants of animals imported in the 19th century as pack animals for inland exploration and transport. This feral population, estimated at over one million animals, has become the basis of a small but growing meat and dairy industry.

Camel meat is lean, red, and has a flavour sometimes compared to beef but slightly sweeter and gamier. Common cuts include rump, cube roll, and steak cuts. Camel milk is also produced commercially on a small scale and is valued for its distinct composition.

Various raw and prepared cuts of camel muscle meat, including steak, rump, and cube roll.

Camellia, in the food context, refers primarily to Camellia oleifera and related species grown for their oil-bearing seeds. These are close relatives of the tea plant (Camellia sinensis) and the ornamental camellias common in Australian gardens. Tea seed oil — also called camellia oil — has been used in Chinese and Japanese cooking for over a thousand years.

The oil pressed from camellia seeds is light, mild-flavoured, and has a high smoke point, making it suitable for stir-frying, deep-frying, and use as a finishing oil. It’s sometimes compared to olive oil in terms of its fatty acid profile, being high in oleic acid.

Camu Camu.

The Canada goose (Branta canadensis) is a large waterfowl native to North America, recognisable by its black head and neck with distinctive white chinstrap markings. It’s one of the most abundant and widespread goose species in the world, found across North America and introduced populations in Europe and New Zealand.

Canada goose meat is dark, lean, and has a rich, gamey flavour that reflects the bird’s wild diet of grasses, grains, and aquatic plants. The breast is the most commonly eaten cut. The meat is quite different from farmed poultry — denser, more flavourful, and requires careful cooking to avoid drying out.

Groups Canada goose breast records including specific skinless raw preparations under a single culinary part.

Hard lollies — known as boiled sweets in some circles — are one of the oldest and simplest forms of confectionery. Made primarily from sugar cooked to high temperatures, they’re designed to be sucked rather than chewed, slowly dissolving to release their flavour.

The category covers an enormous range: fruit drops, barley sugar, humbugs, butterscotch, toffees, candy canes, lollipops, and countless novelty shapes and flavours. Australian classics include Clinkers (though those have a soft centre), fruit tingles, and old-fashioned mixed lollies sold by the bag at corner shops and milk bars.

Candy Cap Mushroom.

Canistel.

Tomato products preserved through canning, drying, or concentration.

Preserved beetroot products, including pickled varieties and those canned in brine or sauces.

Albacore, sold as “white” tuna, has a lighter colour and milder taste than other canned tuna varieties. Its firmer texture holds together well in salads, pasta bakes, and sandwich fillings where you want distinct flakes rather than a fine crumble.

Packed in water and drained, it’s a lean pantry protein. Albacore is prized in Japanese cuisine as “shiro maguro” and is one of the most widely canned tuna species worldwide. In Australia it’s typically found alongside light tuna on supermarket shelves, often at a slightly higher price point reflecting its texture and flavour.

Canned figs capture the honeyed sweetness of ripe figs in a convenient, shelf-stable form. Packed in water rather than syrup, they have a gentler sweetness that lets the fig’s own flavour come through — jammy, subtly floral, with that characteristic soft texture and tiny seed crunch.

They work well as a simple dessert with cream or yoghurt, and can be warmed and served alongside cheese or used in baking. While fresh figs have a painfully short season and shelf life, canned figs are available year-round and hold up surprisingly well in both sweet and savoury dishes.

Canned green beans are a convenient standby for quick meals. They come already cooked and tender, so they just need draining and a brief warm-through — or can be used cold in salads. Their texture is softer than fresh or frozen beans, with a mild, slightly savoury flavour.

They’re commonly used in casseroles, stir-throughs, and side dishes where convenience matters more than crunch. Available cut, sliced, or as whole beans, they’re a reliable option when fresh green beans aren’t on hand and you need a vegetable on the plate in minutes.

Light tuna, most commonly skipjack, is the everyday canned tuna found in Australian kitchens. It has a darker colour and more pronounced, fishier flavour than albacore, with a softer texture that flakes and breaks apart easily — ideal for mixing into pasta, rice dishes, or mashing with mayonnaise for sandwiches.

Packed in water and drained, it’s a lean and affordable source of protein that keeps well in the pantry. Skipjack is the most abundantly caught tuna species globally, and its smaller size and faster reproduction rate generally make it a more sustainable choice than larger tuna varieties.

Canned peaches in juice are one of Australia’s most popular tinned fruits — a legacy of the country’s long history of stone fruit orchards, particularly in the Goulburn Valley. Packed in fruit juice rather than heavy syrup, they offer the fragrant sweetness of ripe peaches with a lighter touch.

Available as halves, slices, or diced, they’re a classic dessert served with ice cream or custard, and work well in crumbles, trifles, and on top of pavlova. The fruit is picked and processed at peak ripeness, which often means canned peaches can taste better than the underripe fresh ones you might find at the shops out of season.

Canned pears in pear juice have a clean, gentle sweetness and a smooth, yielding texture. They’re one of the mildest canned fruits, making them a go-to for young children and a versatile ingredient that doesn’t overpower other flavours.

Like canned peaches, they’re a product Australia has produced in large volumes for generations. Served chilled with yoghurt, warmed in a crumble, or simply eaten straight from the tin, they’re an unpretentious pantry staple. Packing in pear juice rather than syrup keeps the flavour clean and the sugar content closer to what the fruit provides naturally.

Canned pineapple is one of the most widely consumed tinned fruits worldwide. Packed in its own juice and drained, it delivers that bright, tropical sweetness and acidity without the mess of butchering a whole fresh pineapple.

Available as rings, chunks, tidbits, or crushed, it’s essential for dishes like Hawaiian pizza, sweet and sour pork, and upside-down cake. It also works in salsas, on cheese platters, and blended into smoothies. Because pineapple is harvested and canned at peak ripeness in tropical regions, the canned version is often sweeter and more consistent than the fresh fruit available in Australian shops.

Pink salmon is the most abundant Pacific salmon species and the most commonly canned. It has a lighter colour and milder flavour than sockeye, with a softer texture that flakes apart easily. Sold as total can contents — meaning the liquid, soft edible bones, and skin are all included — it’s best suited to dishes where the salmon is mixed in rather than served as a centrepiece.

It’s a pantry workhorse for salmon patties, rissoles, mornays, pasta bakes, and sandwich fillings. The soft bones are fully edible after canning and add a calcium boost. In Australia, both wild-caught Pacific and farmed varieties are available.

Canned plums in water have a rich, slightly tart flavour and a very soft, yielding texture. They’re packed in water rather than syrup, so the natural tartness of the fruit comes through more strongly — making them better suited to cooking than eating straight from the tin for most people.

They work well in crumbles, cobblers, compotes, and as a base for sauces. The deep purple skin bleeds colour into the packing liquid, giving everything a dramatic ruby hue. While less common on Australian shelves than canned peaches or pears, they’re a useful pantry fruit for baking and desserts when fresh plums are out of season.

Sockeye is considered the premium canned salmon. Its flesh is a vivid deep red — much darker than pink salmon — with a firmer texture and a richer, more pronounced flavour. Drained of its packing liquid, it holds together in attractive flakes that look and taste noticeably better than its cheaper pink counterpart.

It’s the salmon of choice when appearance matters — in salads, on crackers, or in dishes where the salmon is front and centre rather than mixed into a bake. In Australia, canned sockeye comes primarily from wild Pacific fisheries, though farmed options also exist. It commands a higher price, but the colour and flavour justify it for many cooks.

Canned sour cherries are a baker’s ingredient more than a snacking fruit. Their sharp, tangy flavour — quite different from the sweet cherries you’d eat fresh — is exactly what’s needed in cherry pies, clafoutis, Black Forest cake, and cherry sauce for duck or pork.

Packed in water with pits removed, they’re ready to use straight from the tin. Sour cherries have a very short fresh season and are fragile, so the canned version is often the most practical way to access them in Australia. Their bright tartness cuts through sweet and rich dishes, which is why they’ve been a staple of European-style baking for centuries.

Canned spinach is pre-cooked and very soft — a different product entirely from fresh spinach. It has a concentrated, slightly mineral flavour and a dense, dark-green appearance. While it won’t work in a salad, it’s useful in cooked dishes where spinach is meant to melt into the background: dips, spanakopita fillings, creamed spinach, curries, and pasta sauces.

It’s a convenient option when you need a large volume of cooked spinach without the hassle of wilting down several bags of fresh leaves. A whole tin of canned spinach is roughly what you’d get from cooking a very large bunch of fresh.

Canned strawberries in syrup are a dessert ingredient rather than an everyday fruit. The syrup preserves their sweetness but the texture changes significantly from fresh — they become very soft and almost jam-like, with the bright red colour fading to a deeper, darker hue.

They’re most commonly used as a topping for ice cream, cheesecake, pancakes, and pavlova, or as a filling for sweet crepes and sponge cakes. The syrup itself is useful as a sweet sauce or drizzle. While they lack the firmness and fresh tang of raw strawberries, their concentrated sweetness makes them a reliable dessert component year-round.

Canned sweet cherries are ripe cherries packed in water rather than syrup, making them a less sweet option than their syrup-packed counterparts. They’re sold with both the fruit and the packing liquid included.

They’re handy for baking — think cherry clafoutis, Black Forest cake, or stirred through muffin batter. They also work well spooned over yoghurt or ice cream, or folded into a fruit salad when fresh cherries are out of season. Because they’re packed in water rather than heavy syrup, they have a cleaner cherry flavour.

Canned sweet corn is one of the most common pantry staples in Australian kitchens. The kernels are cut from the cob, packed, and heat-processed to preserve their sweetness and colour.

It’s incredibly versatile — tossed into salads, stirred through fritters and frittatas, added to soups and chowders, or mixed into fried rice. It’s a reliable base for corn relish and works well in Mexican-style dishes like quesadillas and salsas. Kids tend to love it straight from the tin.

Canned sweet potato comes pre-cooked and vacuum-packed, meaning there’s no packing liquid — just the potato itself. This gives the pieces a denser, firmer texture compared to sweet potato canned in syrup or water.

It’s a convenient shortcut for casseroles, curries, and mashes where you want cooked sweet potato without the prep time. In American-style cooking it’s traditionally used for sweet potato pie and candied yams, though in Australian kitchens it’s more commonly added to soups, stews, or mashed as a side.

Water chestnuts are the crunchy, mildly sweet corms of an aquatic plant — not a nut at all. Canned water chestnuts are the form most Australians encounter, sold peeled, sliced or whole, and ready to use.

Their main appeal is texture. They stay remarkably crisp even after cooking, which makes them a staple in stir-fries, san choy bau, and dumpling fillings. They’re also diced into dishes like water chestnut and bacon wraps, or added to Thai curries and Chinese soups for crunch.

Wax beans are a variety of snap bean with a pale yellow colour and a slightly milder, more buttery flavour than green beans. Canned wax beans come pre-cooked and ready to eat, packed whole or cut into lengths.

They’re used much the same way as canned green beans — in casseroles, three-bean salads, or simply warmed and served as a side with butter and seasoning. Their golden colour makes them a nice visual contrast when mixed with green beans or other vegetables.

Italian-style canned zucchini is cooked zucchini packed in a tomato-based sauce, typically seasoned with garlic, onion, and herbs. It’s a ready-to-eat convenience product rather than plain canned zucchini.

It works as a quick side dish, warmed and served alongside grilled meat or pasta. It can also be used as a base for baked dishes — spooned into a gratin, layered into lasagne, or stirred through pasta as a simple sauce.

Cannellini beans are a variety of white kidney bean (Phaseolus vulgaris) originating from Italy. They’re the largest of the common white bean varieties, with a smooth, creamy texture when cooked and a mild, slightly nutty flavour. Their shape is elongated and slightly curved, similar to a kidney bean.

Cannellini beans are central to Italian cuisine — they’re the bean in classic dishes like pasta e fagioli, minestrone, and Tuscan white bean soup. They’re also widely used in salads, dips, casseroles, and as a simple side dish dressed with olive oil and herbs. Their neutral flavour and creamy texture make them one of the most versatile beans in the kitchen.

A popular white kidney bean variety, encompassing the mature seeds in both dried and canned forms.

Canola is a group of rapeseed cultivars (Brassica napus and Brassica rapa) that were selectively bred in Canada in the 1970s to have low levels of erucic acid and glucosinolates — compounds that made traditional rapeseed oil unpalatable and potentially harmful in large quantities. The name “canola” originally stood for “Canadian oil, low acid.”

Canola oil is light in colour, mild in flavour, and has a relatively high smoke point, making it one of the most versatile and widely used cooking oils globally. It’s the dominant cooking oil in Australian households and food manufacturing, used for frying, baking, salad dressings, and as an ingredient in margarine and processed foods.

Canola margarine is a spreadable fat made by blending canola oil with palm and palm kernel oils to achieve a smooth, soft consistency that spreads easily straight from the fridge. At 80% fat content, it performs similarly to butter in most cooking applications.

It’s a popular choice for spreading on toast and sandwiches, and works in baking where a neutral-flavoured fat is preferred. Some people choose it over butter for its plant-based oil profile, though it’s worth noting the inclusion of palm oils in the blend.

Refined vegetable oil extracted from canola seeds, including standard liquid and convenient spray formats.

Cape gooseberries are small, round, golden-orange fruits encased in a distinctive papery calyx that looks like a tiny lantern. Despite the name, they’re not related to gooseberries — they’re actually in the same family as tomatoes and tomatillos.

The flavour is unique — sweet and tart with tropical notes somewhere between passionfruit, pineapple, and tomato. They’re eaten fresh as a snack, used as a garnish (the peeled-back husk makes an elegant presentation), or added to salads, desserts, and jams. They pair well with chocolate and are sometimes dipped in it as a petit four.

Capelin.

Bell Pepper.

Capsicum.

Carambola (Averrhoa carambola) is a tropical fruit native to Southeast Asia, widely recognised by its unique ridged shape that produces a star pattern when cut in cross-section. The entire fruit is edible, including the thin waxy skin.

The flavour ranges from tart to sweet depending on the variety and ripeness, with notes of citrus, apple, and grape. Tart varieties are used in cooking and condiments across Asia, while sweeter cultivars are eaten fresh. The fruit is juicy with a crisp texture.

Products derived from heated sugar, ranging from food coloring to chewy confections.

Groups whole pods, extracted seeds, and ground powder into a single canonical spice profile.

Cardoon.

Caribou (Rangifer tarandus) are large members of the deer family found across the Arctic and subarctic regions of North America, Europe, and Asia. In Europe and Asia, the same species is known as reindeer. Wild caribou in North America are a distinct cultural and dietary tradition from the semi-domesticated reindeer herds of Scandinavia and Siberia.

Caribou meat has been a central food source for Indigenous peoples of northern Canada and Alaska for thousands of years. Nearly every part of the animal is used — muscle meat, organs, marrow, and tongue all feature in traditional foodways. The meat is lean and fine-grained, with a mild gamey flavour.

Caribou stew is a traditional dish of Alaska Native peoples, built around the lean, rich meat of wild caribou. It’s a hearty, warming preparation that reflects the subsistence food traditions of Arctic and sub-Arctic Indigenous communities.

The stew typically features caribou meat slow-cooked with whatever vegetables and seasonings are available, resulting in a deeply flavoured broth with tender meat. Recipes vary between communities and families, often passed down through generations.

Caribou meat is a lean, dark red game meat with a rich, slightly sweet flavour that’s milder than venison from other deer species. Caribou — known as reindeer in Europe and Asia — are large migratory deer native to Arctic and sub-Arctic regions of North America, Europe, and Siberia.

The meat is versatile and can be prepared much like other lean game meats — roasted, grilled, braised, or made into sausages, jerky, and stews. Because it’s very lean, it benefits from careful cooking to avoid drying out. Slow braising and stewing suit tougher cuts, while tenderloin and backstrap are excellent quickly seared.

Internal organs and specialized edible parts including liver, tongue, marrow, and eyes.

A popular Brazilian variety of common bean, typically categorized by its mature seeds and various dry, shelf-stable forms.

Carissa (Carissa macrocarpa), commonly called natal plum, is a fruit-bearing shrub native to coastal areas of southern Africa. The plant produces small, oval, red to purple berries with a flavour often described as a mix of cranberry, strawberry, and plum. The fruit is edible when ripe, though the rest of the plant contains toxic compounds and should not be consumed.

Natal plum is more commonly grown as an ornamental hedge plant than as a food crop. Its glossy leaves, fragrant white flowers, and tolerance of salt spray and poor soils make it popular in coastal landscaping across subtropical regions, including parts of Australia and the southern United States.

Consolidates raw fruit and generic botanical part entries for Carissa (natal-plum) into a single functional archetype.

Carob (Ceratonia siliqua) is an evergreen tree native to the Mediterranean basin that produces long, dark-brown seed pods. The pods have a naturally sweet, mildly chocolatey flavour and have been eaten in the region for thousands of years. Both the pulp and the seeds are commercially useful.

Carob pulp is dried and ground into a powder used as a cocoa substitute in confectionery, baking, and beverages. It’s naturally sweet and contains no caffeine or theobromine, making it a common alternative for people avoiding chocolate. Carob bean gum (locust bean gum), extracted from the seeds, is a widely used food thickener and stabiliser found in products from ice cream to pet food.

Carob beverage powder is a naturally sweet, caffeine-free drink mix made from the dried and roasted pods of the carob tree. It has a warm, malty flavour that resembles chocolate or cocoa but with a distinctive earthy sweetness and no bitterness.

Carob beverages gained popularity as a caffeine-free alternative to hot chocolate and are often mixed with warm milk or plant-based milks. The powder dissolves readily and can also be blended into smoothies or shakes. Its natural sweetness means less added sugar is needed compared to cocoa-based drinks.

Processed carob products including liquid sweeteners and solid confectionery.

Ground carob pods used as a cocoa substitute or baking ingredient.

The Carolina Reaper is a cultivar of Capsicum chinense developed by Ed Currie of the PuckerButt Pepper Company in Fort Mill, South Carolina. It was certified as the world’s hottest chilli pepper by Guinness World Records in 2013, measuring over 1.5 million Scoville Heat Units on average, with individual specimens exceeding 2.2 million.

The pepper is small and gnarly, typically red when ripe, with a distinctive pointed tail. Despite its extreme heat, it has a fruity, sweet initial flavour before the capsaicin overwhelms. It’s a cross between a Pakistani Naga pepper and a red habanero type.

Carrots are the tapered orange root of a plant in the parsley family. They are crunchy when raw, tender when cooked, and naturally sweet — a combination that makes them one of the most versatile and popular vegetables in Australian kitchens.

Carrots are eaten raw in salads, sticks, and lunch boxes; roasted alongside other root vegetables; simmered in soups, stews, and curries; grated into slaws and baked into cakes; and juiced for drinks. Their sweetness intensifies with roasting or slow cooking. While orange carrots dominate, purple, yellow, and white heritage varieties are increasingly available at farmers’ markets.

Casaba Melon.

The cashew (Anacardus occidentale) is a tropical tree native to northeastern Brazil. What we call a cashew nut is actually the seed of the cashew fruit. The nut grows in a hard, double-walled shell at the base of a fleshy, pear-shaped fruit called the cashew apple. The shell contains caustic oil (related to poison ivy), which is why cashews are never sold in their shell and are always heat-processed before sale — even those labelled “raw.”

Processed cashew spreads including plain, salted, and unsalted varieties.

The whole cashew kernel in its various raw and roasted forms, including salted and unsalted variants.

Cassava (Manihot esculenta) is a woody shrub native to South America, cultivated primarily for its large, starchy tuberous roots. It’s the third-largest source of dietary carbohydrates in the tropics, after rice and maize, and a staple food for over half a billion people across sub-Saharan Africa, Southeast Asia, and South America.

The root is versatile: it’s boiled, fried, mashed, dried into flour, or processed into tapioca (the extracted starch). Cassava flour and tapioca starch are increasingly common in Australian kitchens as gluten-free alternatives. The leaves are also eaten as a green vegetable in parts of Africa and Asia.

Processed food items where cassava or tapioca starch is the primary structural ingredient, including traditional staples like fufu.

A gluten-free flour produced by grinding the entire cassava root, used for baking and as a thickener.

The fresh, starchy tuber of the cassava plant, including various color varieties and basic preparations like peeling and boiling.

Savory, crispy snacks made from sliced cassava roots, often referred to as yucca chips.

Cassia (Cinnamomum cassia, also called Chinese cinnamon) is one of several species whose dried bark is sold as cinnamon. It’s the dominant form of cinnamon in global trade, particularly in North America, Australia, and East Asia. Most ground cinnamon on supermarket shelves is cassia, not “true” cinnamon (Cinnamomum verum, or Ceylon cinnamon).

Cassia has a stronger, more pungent flavour than Ceylon cinnamon, with a noticeable spicy bite. The bark curls into thick, single-layered rolls (quills) when dried, as opposed to the thin, multi-layered rolls of Ceylon cinnamon. It’s a staple spice in both sweet and savoury cooking worldwide.

Consolidates generic catfish products and specific restaurant-style preparations into a single archetype.

Cattail (Typha species) is a group of wetland plants found across North America, Europe, Asia, and Australia. They grow in marshes, along lake edges, and in ditches — anywhere with shallow standing water. The plants are instantly recognisable by their tall, blade-like leaves and the dense, brown, cylindrical flower spikes that appear in summer.

Cattails have a long history as a food source for Indigenous peoples of North America. Multiple parts of the plant are edible at different stages: young shoots in spring, immature flower spikes, pollen, and starchy rhizomes. The shoots, which are the most commonly consumed part, have a mild flavour sometimes compared to cucumber or young corn.

Culinary shoots harvested from cattail plants, encompassing both generic and specific regional or botanical variants.

Cattle (Bos taurus and Bos indicus) are large domesticated ruminants that have been raised by humans for thousands of years. They were originally domesticated from wild aurochs in the Near East and Indus Valley, and are now found on every inhabited continent. Cattle are raised for beef, dairy, hides, and historically as draught animals.

Beef from cattle is the most consumed red meat in Australia, which has one of the highest per-capita beef consumption rates globally. The Australian beef industry is also a major exporter, supplying markets across Asia, the US, and the Middle East. Beef cuts span a wide range — from premium steaks and roasts to mince and offal — and the animal yields numerous distinct products depending on the cut and preparation.

Cattle and pig refers to meat products made from a combination of beef and pork. This pairing is one of the most common in processed meats worldwide, found in everything from frankfurters and salamis to meat pies and bolognese sauces.

The combination exists because beef and pork bring different qualities to a product. Beef contributes a strong, savoury flavour and firm texture, while pork adds fat content, moisture, and a milder taste. Together they produce a balanced result that neither achieves alone. Most continental European sausage traditions rely on this blend, and it remains the standard formulation for many processed meat products sold in Australia.

Cauliflower.

Cauliflower Mushroom.

Collects processed sturgeon roe and various granular caviar forms into a single culinary archetype.

Celeriac.

Celery.

Celtuce — also known as stem lettuce, wosun, or asparagus lettuce — is a variety of lettuce cultivated primarily for its long, thick, edible stem. While it looks nothing like the leafy lettuces most Australians are familiar with, it is in fact the same species, bred to produce a substantial, crisp stalk.

The peeled stem has a mild, slightly nutty flavour with a satisfying crunch, similar to a cross between cucumber and broccoli stem. It’s a staple vegetable in Chinese cooking, where it’s stir-fried, braised, shredded into salads, or pickled. The leaves are also edible, though they tend to be more bitter and are less prized.

Cereal grains are the seeds of grasses in the family Poaceae, cultivated as staple foods across virtually every human civilisation. The major cereal grains — wheat, rice, corn, barley, oats, sorghum, millet, and rye — collectively provide more food energy to the world’s population than any other crop group.

In this context, cereal grain appears as a composite ingredient in products like grain-based beverages and cereal extracts where the specific grain source may vary or be blended. These products draw on the starches, proteins, and sugars naturally present in grains. In Australia, wheat and barley are the dominant cereal crops, though rice, oats, and sorghum are also grown commercially.

Cereal grain beverages are caffeine-free hot drinks made from roasted and ground grains such as barley, rye, wheat, or chicory root. They’ve been used as coffee alternatives for centuries, and remain popular with people who enjoy the ritual of a warm, dark brew without the caffeine.

The flavour is earthy, malty, and toasty — reminiscent of coffee but distinctly its own thing, with caramel and nutty notes. Brands like Caro, Ecco, and Bambu have long been available in Australian supermarkets. The powder dissolves in hot water or milk much like instant coffee.

Ceylon Cinnamon.

Chaga.

Groups the botanical flower heads and their common prepared form as a brewed herbal infusion.

Champignon.

Channel Catfish.

Chanterelles are among the most celebrated wild mushrooms in the world, instantly recognisable by their golden-yellow colour, wavy funnel shape, and distinctive ridges (rather than true gills) running down their stems. They have a complex flavour — mildly peppery with a fruity, almost apricot-like aroma that intensifies when cooked.

In European cuisine, chanterelles are a seasonal delicacy, simply sautéed in butter with herbs, folded into omelettes, or served alongside game and poultry. They pair beautifully with cream, thyme, and white wine. Their firm, meaty texture holds up well to cooking without becoming slimy.

Chanterelle.

Chard (Beta vulgaris subsp. vulgaris) is a leafy green in the same species as beetroot, but bred for its leaves and stems rather than its root. In Australia, the most common variety is silverbeet, which has broad, dark green leaves with thick white stems. Rainbow chard varieties, with stems in red, yellow, orange, and pink, are increasingly popular at farmers’ markets.

Chard has been cultivated in the Mediterranean region since antiquity. It is a workhorse vegetable — hardy, productive, and tolerant of both heat and mild frost. In Australian home gardens and market farms, it is one of the most reliable year-round leafy greens. The leaves and stems are typically cooked separately because the stems take longer. Chard features prominently in Mediterranean, Middle Eastern, and South American cuisines.

A diverse range of aged, fresh, and processed dairy products made from bovine milk.

Cherimoya.

Cherries are the fruit of trees in the genus Prunus, closely related to plums, peaches, and apricots. The two main types grown for eating are sweet cherries (Prunus avium) and sour or tart cherries (Prunus cerasus). Sweet cherries are eaten fresh, while sour cherries are primarily used in cooking, baking, and preserves.

Cherries have been cultivated since ancient times across Europe and western Asia. Today they are grown commercially in temperate regions worldwide. In Australia, cherries are a premium summer fruit with a short season running from late November through February. The major growing regions are in Tasmania, the Adelaide Hills, Young in New South Wales, and the Yarra Valley in Victoria. Australian-grown cherries are also a significant export product, particularly to Asian markets where they are in high demand during the Southern Hemisphere summer.

Cherry baby food is a fruit-based purée designed for infants transitioning to solid foods. The “junior” texture is slightly coarser than stage-one purées, intended for babies who have developed some chewing ability, typically around 9–12 months.

Cherry cobbler varieties combine cooked cherries with a cereal or grain component, offering a more complex flavour and texture than plain fruit purées. The combination introduces babies to mixed-texture foods while keeping the overall consistency soft and safe.

Cherry pie is a classic baked dessert featuring a pastry crust filled with cherries that have been sweetened and thickened. It’s one of the most traditional fruit pies, typically made with sour (Morello) cherries rather than sweet eating varieties, as the tartness balances well against the added sugar.

Commercially prepared cherry pies are sold as whole frozen pies, individual pie slices, or as canned cherry pie filling ready to be poured into a homemade crust. The canned fillings are also used as toppings for cheesecakes, ice cream, and other desserts.

Chervil.

Whole chestnuts and kernels, including raw and roasted preparations.

Chestnut flour is a fine, pale-tan flour with a distinctly sweet, nutty aroma. It’s naturally gluten-free and has been used for centuries in Italian and Corsican cooking, where chestnut trees were once so important they were called “the bread tree.”

The flour produces dense, moist baked goods with a characteristic sweetness that reduces the need for added sugar. It’s traditionally used in Italian castagnaccio (a flat chestnut cake), necci (chestnut crêpes), and various breads and pastas. In modern cooking, it works well blended with other flours in pancakes, cakes, and gnocchi.

Chestnut Mushroom.

Chewing gum is a confection built around an insoluble gum base that provides its characteristic chew. The gum base is coated and infused with sweeteners, flavourings, and softeners that release during chewing, eventually leaving the flavourless base behind.

Modern chewing gum comes in two main forms: traditional sugar-sweetened gum and sugar-free varieties sweetened with polyols like xylitol or sorbitol. Sugar-free gum now dominates the market. Formats range from sticks and pellets to dragée-style coated pieces.

Chia (Salvia hispanica) is a flowering plant in the mint family, native to central and southern Mexico and Guatemala. Its tiny seeds — black, white, or grey — were a staple food for the Aztec and Maya civilisations. After centuries of obscurity, chia seeds re-entered the global food supply in the early 2000s and have since become widely available.

Chia seeds are notable for their ability to absorb many times their weight in water, forming a thick gel. This property makes them useful as a thickener in puddings, smoothies, and baked goods, and as an egg substitute in vegan cooking. They have a mild, slightly nutty flavour and are commonly sprinkled on yoghurt, cereal, or added to drinks. Australia is one of the world’s largest producers of chia, with significant farming operations in the Kimberley region of Western Australia and parts of Queensland.

Groups various technical entries for raw and dried chia seeds into a single canonical archetype.

The domestic chicken (Gallus gallus domesticus) is descended from the red junglefowl of Southeast Asia and has been raised for food for thousands of years. Today, chicken is the most consumed meat globally and in Australia, where it overtook beef in per-capita consumption in the 2000s.

Commercial chicken meat comes from broiler breeds that have been selectively bred for rapid growth and efficient feed conversion. A whole bird yields a range of cuts — breast, thigh, drumstick, wing — with significantly different textures and fat contents. Chicken is valued for its versatility in cooking, relatively mild flavour, and lower price point compared to most other meats. It appears in virtually every culinary tradition worldwide and is a cornerstone ingredient in Australian home cooking and food service.

This broad category covers the full range of commercially prepared chicken and turkey-based liquid foods: clear broths and stocks, chunky soups with vegetables and noodles, cream-based varieties, and gravies. They’re sold in cans, cartons, pouches, and as concentrates or powders.

Chicken soup in particular holds a place in home cooking traditions worldwide and remains one of the most popular ready-made soup varieties in Australia. Commercial versions range from simple broths intended as a cooking ingredient to hearty soups meant as a complete meal.

Chicken dinner baby foods are savoury, mixed-ingredient purées designed to introduce infants to protein-rich meals. The “junior” designation indicates a texture suited to babies around 9–12 months who are developing chewing skills — slightly chunkier than early-stage purées but still very soft.

These products combine cooked chicken with vegetables such as carrots, peas, sweet potato, or corn in various combinations. They provide a convenient way for parents to offer balanced meals during the weaning period, when babies are transitioning from milk feeds to solid foods.

Standard chicken breast cuts, including lean flesh, with or without skin, and deli-style roasts.

Chicken eggs are one of the most versatile and widely consumed foods in the world. A standard hen’s egg consists of a protective shell, a white (albumen) rich in protein, and a yolk containing fat, protein, vitamins, and minerals. Beyond eating directly — boiled, fried, scrambled, poached — eggs are a foundational ingredient in baking, sauces, pasta, and countless other preparations, where they serve as binders, leaveners, emulsifiers, and glazes.

Chicken eggs are one of the most versatile and widely consumed foods in the world. A single egg contains a yolk and white enclosed in a shell, and can be cooked in dozens of ways — boiled, fried, scrambled, poached, baked — or used as a binding, leavening, or emulsifying agent in countless recipes.

In Australia, eggs are sold by size (from 43g to over 72g) and categorised by farming method: caged, barn-laid, free-range, and organic. Free-range eggs now account for the majority of retail sales. Shell colour — white or brown — is determined by the hen’s breed and has no effect on flavour or quality.

Processed chicken products, including fast-food items, frozen nuggets, and sandwich fillers.

Chicken Of The Woods.

Dark meat chicken cuts, including drumsticks and thighs, available in various cooked states.

Chicken wings, categorized by cooking method and fast-food style breading.

Chickpea.

Covers whole chickpeas (garbanzo beans) in raw, dried, canned, and flour forms.

Chicle is a natural gum made from the milky latex of the sapodilla tree (Manilkara zapota), native to Central America and southern Mexico. For centuries, the Maya and Aztec peoples chewed chicle, and it became the original base ingredient in commercial chewing gum when the industry emerged in the United States in the late 1800s.

By the mid-20th century, most commercial chewing gum manufacturers switched from chicle to cheaper synthetic polymers (polyvinyl acetate and other petroleum-derived bases). However, chicle continues to be used in some premium and natural chewing gum brands marketed as biodegradable or organic alternatives to synthetic gum. The chicle trade persists on a small scale in Mexico, Guatemala, and Belize.

Chicory (Cichorium intybus) is a perennial plant in the daisy family, native to Europe and now naturalised across much of the world, including Australia, where it grows as a common roadside weed. It is cultivated for two distinct purposes: its leaves and its roots.

Leaf chicory varieties include witlof (Belgian endive), radicchio, and puntarelle — all prized for their characteristic bitterness in salads and cooked dishes. Root chicory has a long, thick taproot that, when roasted and ground, produces a dark, bitter brew used as a coffee substitute or additive. Chicory root coffee has a strong tradition in France, New Orleans, and parts of Southeast Asia, and is available in Australian supermarkets and cafés. Chicory root is also a commercial source of inulin, a soluble fibre widely used as a prebiotic ingredient in processed foods.

Chicory coffee is made from the roasted and ground root of the chicory plant, producing a dark, rich brew with an earthy, slightly bitter flavour reminiscent of coffee but without the caffeine. It can be drunk on its own as a caffeine-free alternative or blended with instant coffee to mellow the flavour and stretch the coffee further.

The tradition of mixing chicory with coffee has deep roots in French and New Orleans cuisine, where it remains a signature style. In Australia, chicory-blend instant coffees have long been a quiet pantry staple, particularly among older generations.

Chicory leaves encompass a family of bitter greens including witlof (Belgian endive), radicchio, and curly endive. They range from pale, tightly furled witlof heads to the deep red leaves of radicchio and the frilly, open heads of curly endive. All share a characteristic bitterness that varies in intensity by variety.

In the kitchen, chicory leaves are valued for the contrast their bitterness brings to richer ingredients. Witlof leaves make elegant cups for dips and fillings, radicchio adds colour and punch to salads, and curly endive holds vinaigrettes beautifully. They can also be grilled, braised, or roasted, which softens their bitterness and brings out a caramelised sweetness.

The taproot portion of the chicory plant, primarily used as a vegetable or processed for various culinary applications.

The chilaca pepper is a mild to hot Mexican chili; when dried, it is known as the pasilla pepper.

Chile peppers encompass a wide range of cultivated Capsicum species, originally domesticated in Central and South America thousands of years ago. They vary enormously in size, shape, colour, and heat level — from mild bell-type peppers to intensely hot varieties like habaneros and bird’s eye chillies.

The heat in chile peppers comes from capsaicin, a compound concentrated in the seeds and internal membranes. This heat is measured on the Scoville scale and varies from near zero to over two million units in extreme cultivars. Beyond heat, chile peppers contribute fruity, smoky, earthy, and sweet flavour notes depending on the variety and preparation.

A blend of spices and seasonings specifically formulated for flavoring chili, encompassing both generic product forms and original dry mixes.

Chili Pepper.

Chilli refers broadly to the pungent fruits of plants in the genus Capsicum, native to the Americas and now cultivated on every inhabited continent. The spelling “chilli” is standard in Australian English and much of the Commonwealth, distinguishing it from the American “chili” which can also refer to the dish chilli con carne.

Hundreds of cultivated varieties exist, ranging from large, mild capsicums to tiny, fiercely hot bird’s eye chillies. The compound capsaicin is responsible for the burning sensation, and its concentration varies widely between varieties. Beyond heat, chillies contribute complex flavours — fruity, smoky, earthy, or floral — that are central to cuisines from South-East Asia to Latin America to the Indian subcontinent.

Chilli pepper is a general term for the pungent fruit of Capsicum plants, used interchangeably with “chilli” in many contexts. The term emphasises the fruit’s role as a pepper — part of the broader family of spice-bearing plants that have shaped global food culture since the Columbian Exchange brought them from the Americas to Europe, Africa, and Asia in the 15th and 16th centuries.

Chilli peppers are valued for both their heat and their flavour complexity. Different varieties offer different flavour profiles, from the bright, grassy notes of a green jalapeño to the deep, fruity warmth of a dried ancho. This diversity makes them one of the most versatile ingredients in the global kitchen.

Chilli sauces and pastes are concentrated chilli preparations that serve as both cooking ingredients and finishing condiments. This category includes everything from smooth, pourable hot sauces like Tabasco-style pepper sauces to thick pastes like sambal oelek, harissa, and gochujang.

As cooking ingredients, they’re stirred into curries, soups, marinades, and dressings to build heat and depth. As condiments, they’re served alongside meals for diners to adjust heat to their own preference. Many Asian, Latin American, and North African dishes rely on a specific style of chilli sauce or paste as a foundational flavour.

Chilli seasoning blends are dry spice mixes centred on ground dried chillies, rounded out with cumin, garlic, onion, oregano, and other warm spices. They’re designed for quick, flavourful cooking — typically stirred into browned mince or mixed with beans for tacos, burritos, nachos, and enchiladas.

While marketed primarily for Mexican-inspired dishes, these blends are versatile enough to season roasted vegetables, coat chicken before grilling, or add warmth to soups and stews. The heat level is generally moderate, making them family-friendly.

Chinese broccoli (Brassica oleracea var. alboglabra), also known as gai lan or kai lan, is a member of the cabbage family prized for its thick, crisp stems and broad, blue-green leaves. Despite its English name, it is only distantly related to the broccoli familiar in Western kitchens — it does not form a large floret head.

The vegetable has a slightly bitter, robust flavour that pairs well with oyster sauce, garlic, and sesame oil. It is a mainstay of Cantonese cuisine and appears frequently in stir-fries, blanched dishes, and noodle soups across South-East Asia. The entire above-ground plant is eaten, including the small white flowers that appear if the plant is allowed to bolt.

Chinese broccoli, known as gai lan or kai lan, is a staple vegetable in Chinese and Southeast Asian cooking. It has glossy, dark green leaves, thick stems, and small clusters of white or pale green flower buds. The flavour is milder and slightly sweeter than regular broccoli, with a pleasant bite to the stems when cooked properly.

It’s most commonly prepared by blanching or stir-frying and served simply with oyster sauce — a classic Cantonese preparation found on almost every yum cha menu. The stems and leaves cook at different rates, so experienced cooks often give the stems a head start in the pan or pot. It also works well in noodle dishes, soups, and steamed alongside rice.

Chinese Celery.

Chinese chestnuts are a species of sweet chestnut native to East Asia, with a rounder shape and slightly different flavour profile to the European chestnuts more familiar in Western cooking. They have a soft, starchy flesh with a gentle sweetness that intensifies when roasted or cooked.

In Chinese cuisine, chestnuts appear in both savoury and sweet dishes. They’re braised with chicken or pork in rich sauces, added to stir-fries, used in stuffings, and cooked into sweet soups and desserts. Roasted chestnuts are a popular street food across East Asia. Their starchy texture makes them more like a root vegetable than a typical nut.

Chinese Eggplant.

Chinese Yam.

Chinook Salmon.

Chioggia Beet.

Chives.

Chlorella.

Cocoa-based mixes and powders designed to be reconstituted with water or milk for drinking.

This category covers the broad world of chocolate confectionery — bars, blocks, and individually wrapped sweets where chocolate is the star. It includes filled bars with layers of caramel, nougat, biscuit, or nuts, as well as solid chocolate blocks and chocolate-coated treats.

Chocolate bars are one of the most popular snack categories in Australia, with local favourites like Cherry Ripe, Violet Crumble, and Cadbury Dairy Milk sitting alongside global brands. They range from mass-produced impulse buys at the servo to handcrafted single-origin bars from artisan makers. The variety is enormous — milk, dark, white, filled, layered, and coated.

Chocolate Mint.

Chocolate puddings and desserts in this category are the ready-to-eat kind — typically sold refrigerated or shelf-stable in individual cups or tubs. They include chocolate mousse, chocolate custard, and set chocolate puddings, all designed to be eaten straight from the packaging.

They’re a convenience dessert, popular in school lunchboxes and as an easy after-dinner sweet. In Australian supermarkets, the range runs from budget chocolate custard cups to more indulgent offerings like layered chocolate mousse pots. The texture varies from thick and creamy custard-style to lighter, aerated mousses.

Chocolate syrups and sauces are pourable, sweetened cocoa-based products used to flavour drinks and top desserts. The most familiar use is stirring a squeeze into cold milk to make chocolate milk, but they’re equally at home drizzled over ice cream, pancakes, or waffles.

In Australia, chocolate topping has long been a household staple — brands like Cottee’s and Hershey’s are supermarket fixtures. The consistency ranges from thin, pourable syrups to thicker sauces that set slightly on cold surfaces. Some versions are designed specifically for ice cream, firming into a shell when poured over a scoop.

Groups the fundamental chokecherry fruit with specific regional preparations and pitted forms.

Chayote.

The fruit of the Sechium edule plant, also known as chayote, including its whole fruit form and common fresh and boiled preparations.

Choy sum, also called Chinese flowering cabbage, is one of the most widely eaten leafy greens in Chinese cuisine. It has slender, pale green stems, broad soft leaves, and small yellow flower buds — all of which are edible. The flavour is mild and slightly sweet, with a tender texture that cooks quickly.

In Australia, choy sum is a staple at Asian grocers and increasingly available in major supermarkets. It’s most commonly stir-fried with garlic and oyster sauce, blanched and dressed with soy, or added to soups and noodle dishes. It’s one of the quickest-cooking greens around — a minute or two in a hot wok is all it needs.

Edible chrysanthemum (Glebionis coronaria, formerly Chrysanthemum coronarium) is a species of chrysanthemum cultivated for its leaves and flowers rather than purely for ornamental purposes. The leaves have a distinctive aromatic, slightly bitter flavour that is valued in Japanese, Chinese, Korean, and Vietnamese cuisines.

The young leaves, called shungiku in Japanese or tong ho in Cantonese, are commonly added to hot pots, soups, and stir-fries in the final moments of cooking to preserve their delicate texture. Chrysanthemum flowers — both from edible varieties and certain ornamental types — are also dried and brewed as a tea across East Asia, prized for their floral aroma.

Grouping the edible foliage of the chrysanthemum plant, commonly consumed as a leaf vegetable in Asian cuisines.

Chum Salmon.

Cinchona is a genus of trees native to the Andes mountains of South America, historically one of the most important medicinal plants in the world. The bark of several Cinchona species contains quinine, an alkaloid that was for centuries the only effective treatment for malaria. This made cinchona bark one of the most sought-after commodities of the colonial era.

Today, cinchona bark’s primary food-related use is as the source of quinine flavouring in tonic water and bitter lemon drinks. The intensely bitter taste of quinine gives tonic water its characteristic flavour, which pairs distinctively with gin and other spirits. Modern tonic waters use either natural quinine extract or synthetic quinine, with the natural product commanding a premium.

Cinnabar Chanterelle.

Cipollini Onion.

Cisco, also known as lake herring, is a small to medium-sized freshwater fish from the salmonid family found in deep, cold lakes across northern North America, particularly the Great Lakes. It has soft, oily flesh with a mild, delicate flavour — richer than most freshwater whitefish due to its higher fat content.

Cisco is not widely available in Australia and is primarily encountered through imported smoked or preserved products. In its native range, it’s enjoyed smoked, fried, or baked, and its roe is sometimes sold as a freshwater caviar. It’s an important species ecologically and culturally in the Great Lakes region.

Citrus is a genus of flowering plants in the family Rutaceae, native to South and South-East Asia, that includes some of the world’s most widely consumed fruits. The major citrus types — oranges, lemons, limes, grapefruits, mandarins, and their many hybrids — are defined by their segmented, juice-filled flesh and aromatic rind, both rich in citric acid and volatile oils.

Citrus fruits are fundamental to cuisines worldwide, used for their juice, zest, and aromatic oils in everything from beverages and dressings to marinades and desserts. The juice is also a major commodity product, with orange juice alone representing a multi-billion-dollar global industry.

Citrus cordial is a concentrated, sweetened drink base made with citrus fruit juice — typically lemon, lime, or orange — designed to be diluted with still or sparkling water. It’s a fixture in Australian households, particularly as an affordable, easy way to flavour water for kids and adults alike.

Cordial has been part of Australian drinking culture for generations, with brands like Bickford’s, Cottee’s, and Roses long established in the market. This style contains around 25% fruit juice, making it one of the higher-juice options among cordials. It’s used as a drink on its own, as a mixer in cocktails and mocktails, and occasionally in baking and dessert recipes.

Citrus soft drinks are carbonated beverages that use citrus flavouring — typically lemon, lime, or a blend — as their primary taste profile. This variety also contains caffeine, distinguishing it from caffeine-free lemon-lime sodas.

These drinks sit alongside colas and other fizzy drinks as a popular refreshment in Australia. The combination of citrus sharpness, sweetness, and carbonation makes them a common choice on their own or as a mixer. The caffeine content is generally lower than in cola drinks.

Clams are bivalve molluscs — soft-bodied animals enclosed in a two-part hinged shell — found in marine and estuarine environments around the world. The term “clam” is broad and informal, covering hundreds of species across multiple families. Common edible types include littleneck clams, quahogs, razor clams, surf clams, and pipis.

Clams have been a food source for coastal peoples for millennia, with shell middens providing some of the earliest archaeological evidence of human seafood consumption. They are filter feeders, drawing water through their bodies to extract plankton and organic particles, which gives them a clean, briny, slightly sweet flavour that reflects the waters they grow in.

New England clam chowder is one of the most recognised soups in American cuisine — a rich, creamy broth loaded with tender clam pieces, diced potato, and onion. It is distinguished from other chowder styles by its white, dairy-based broth rather than a tomato or clear base.

While clam chowder is not a traditional Australian dish, canned ready-to-serve versions are available in supermarkets and offer a convenient meal. The canned product is fully cooked and simply needs to be heated through.

Clams in various states, including raw, canned, and juice forms.

Cloud Ear Fungus.

Cobia.

Cochineal is a scale insect (Dactylopius coccus) that lives on prickly pear cacti, primarily in Peru, Mexico, and the Canary Islands. The female insects produce carminic acid as a defence against predators, and this compound is the basis for carmine — one of the oldest and most stable natural red colorants known.

Carmine extracted from cochineal has been used as a dye for thousands of years, dating back to the Aztec and Maya civilisations. Today it appears in food products, cosmetics, textiles, and pharmaceuticals under names including E120, Natural Red 4, and carmine. It replaced many synthetic red dyes after health concerns arose over artificial alternatives.

The edible vegetable fat extracted from the cacao bean, essential for chocolate making and confectionery.

Cocoa powder is what remains after cocoa butter has been pressed out of ground cacao beans. It concentrates the deep, complex chocolate flavour into a dry, fine powder that dissolves readily into liquids and blends smoothly into batters.

It is an essential ingredient in baking — used in cakes, brownies, biscuits, and icings — and is also stirred into milk for hot chocolate or used to dust desserts. Cocoa powder comes in two main types: natural (slightly acidic and fruity) and Dutch-processed (treated with alkali to neutralise acidity, giving a darker colour and mellower flavour).

The coconut (Cocos nucifera) is a drupe — not technically a nut — produced by the coconut palm, one of the most economically important trees in tropical regions. The fruit has a tough outer husk, a hard inner shell, a layer of white flesh (copra), and a central cavity filled with coconut water.

Coconuts are a staple food across Southeast Asia, the Pacific Islands, South Asia, and parts of Africa and Central America. The flesh is eaten fresh, dried, or processed into cream and milk. The water is consumed as a drink. The dried flesh (copra) is pressed to produce coconut oil, which is used in cooking, food manufacturing, and cosmetics. The sap of the flower stalks is tapped to make palm sugar and fermented beverages.

Finely ground dried coconut meat used as a gluten-free and fiber-rich grain alternative.

Fresh coconut flesh in various stages of maturity, used as a snack or base ingredient for other preparations.

Unfortified coconut milk beverage is a dilute, drinkable coconut product designed as a dairy-free milk alternative. Unlike fortified versions, it does not have added calcium, vitamins, or other supplements — it contains only coconut extract, water, and minimal processing aids.

This product appeals to people who prefer minimal ingredient lists or who want to avoid added supplements in their plant-based milks. It has a light, clean coconut flavour and a relatively thin body compared to canned coconut milk.

Coconut milk beverage is a dilute, drinkable form of coconut milk designed as a dairy-free alternative to cow’s milk. This version has added calcium to bring its mineral content closer to that of dairy milk, making it a more complete substitute for those avoiding dairy.

It has a light coconut flavour and a thinner consistency than the canned coconut milk used in cooking. In Australia, it sits alongside oat, soy, and almond milks in the chilled and long-life sections of supermarkets, and is used in cereal, coffee, smoothies, and on its own.

Rich liquids extracted from coconut meat, primarily used as cooking bases for curries, soups, and desserts.

Fats extracted from coconut used for cooking, industrial food production, and specialized dietary supplements.

The coconut palm (Cocos nucifera) yields more than just its fruit. The tree itself provides several food products, most notably palm heart (the tender growing tip of the trunk), sap tapped from the flower stalks, and various extracts from the endosperm and flesh of immature fruit still attached to the tree.

Palm sap, collected by cutting the flower spadix, is a mildly sweet liquid that can be consumed fresh, fermented into toddy or vinegar, or boiled down to produce palm sugar (known as gula melaka, jaggery, or coconut sugar depending on the region). This sugar is widely used in Southeast Asian and South Asian cooking.

This category covers the range of coconut-based baked goods and pantry staples, from classic coconut macaroons to coconut biscuits and slices. These products all rely on shredded or desiccated coconut as their defining ingredient, giving them a chewy, moist texture and distinctive sweetness.

Coconut macaroons — dense, dome-shaped mounds of shredded coconut bound with egg white and sugar — are among the most recognisable items here. They’re a staple at bakeries and a popular homemade treat, sometimes dipped in chocolate. Other items in this group include coconut rough, coconut ice, and coconut-based biscuit mixes.

The clear liquid found inside young coconuts, consumed as a natural hydrating beverage.

Cocoyam.

Various forms of fresh, frozen, and smoked cod fillets.

Coffee comes from the seeds (commonly called beans) of plants in the genus Coffea, with two species dominating global production: Coffea arabica (arabica) and Coffea canephora (robusta). Native to the forests of Ethiopia, coffee was first cultivated on the Arabian Peninsula and has since become one of the most traded agricultural commodities in the world.

The beverage is made by roasting the green seeds, grinding them, and extracting soluble compounds with hot water. The resulting drink is valued for its complex flavour and its caffeine content. Flavour varies enormously depending on the species, growing region, altitude, processing method, roast level, and brewing technique.

Whole or processed coffee beans and seeds, including chocolate-covered confectionery variants.

Coffee liqueur is a rich, syrupy alcoholic drink that combines the deep bitterness of coffee with sugar and a spirit base, typically rum or neutral grain spirit. Well-known brands like Kahlúa and Tia Maria have made it a staple of bar shelves worldwide.

It’s most commonly used as a cocktail ingredient — the Espresso Martini, White Russian, and Black Russian all depend on it — but it also works as a dessert accompaniment, poured over ice cream or folded into tiramisu. It can be sipped neat or on ice as an after-dinner drink.

This covers the family of espresso-and-milk drinks that form the backbone of Australian café culture. A flat white — arguably Australia’s greatest contribution to the coffee world — is a double shot of espresso topped with steamed milk and a thin layer of microfoam. A latte uses more milk with a light foam layer, while a cappuccino features equal parts espresso, steamed milk, and thick froth, often dusted with chocolate.

Coho Salmon.

Standard sugar-sweetened carbonated soft drinks featuring the signature cola flavor profile.

The cola nut (or kola nut) is the seed of trees in the genus Cola, primarily Cola nitida and Cola acuminata, native to the tropical rainforests of West Africa. The nuts contain caffeine and theobromine, giving them a bitter, astringent flavour and stimulant properties.

Cola nuts have deep cultural significance in West African societies, where they are shared as symbols of hospitality, used in ceremonies, and chewed as a mild stimulant. In the late 19th century, cola nut extract became a key ingredient in early cola soft drink recipes, giving the beverage category its name. Most modern cola drinks no longer contain real cola nut extract, relying instead on synthetic flavourings.

Coleslaw is a simple, crunchy salad made from finely shredded raw cabbage — usually white or a mix of white and red — with grated carrot and a creamy dressing. The dressing is typically mayonnaise-based, often with a touch of vinegar or sugar to balance the richness.

It’s a ubiquitous side dish at takeaway shops, barbecues, and fast food restaurants across Australia. Coleslaw pairs naturally with fried chicken, burgers, pulled pork, and fish and chips. It adds a cool, crisp contrast to hot, rich, or fried foods.

Collard greens (Brassica oleracea var. viridis) are a member of the cabbage family grown for their large, broad, dark green leaves. Unlike their close relatives cabbage and kale, collards do not form a head — the leaves grow loosely from a central stalk.

Collards are deeply rooted in the culinary traditions of the American South, where they are traditionally slow-cooked with smoked pork. They are also widely eaten in parts of Brazil, East Africa, and southern Europe. The leaves have a mild, slightly bitter flavour that becomes sweeter after frost exposure — a trait shared with many brassicas.

Collard greens are broad, flat, dark green leaves with a mildly bitter, earthy flavour and a sturdy texture. They belong to the same species as cabbage, broccoli, and kale, but are grown for their large, open leaves rather than a head or floret.

Most famously associated with Southern American cooking, where they’re traditionally slow-braised with smoked pork, collard greens are also used in Brazilian, East African, and Portuguese cuisines. They can be eaten raw in salads when thinly sliced, sautéed as a quick side, or used as a wrap in place of tortillas or bread.

The common bean (Phaseolus vulgaris) is a single species that includes an enormous range of familiar dried and fresh beans — kidney beans, black beans, cannellini beans, pinto beans, navy beans, borlotti beans, and green (string) beans, among others. All were domesticated independently in Mesoamerica and the Andes thousands of years ago.

As a staple food, the common bean is grown on every continent except Antarctica and is a critical protein source in Central and South America, Africa, and parts of Asia. Dried beans are shelf-stable, inexpensive, and nutritionally dense, making them one of the most important food security crops globally.

Common Carp.

The common mushroom (Agaricus bisporus) is the single species behind several familiar supermarket varieties. Harvested young and white, it is sold as a button mushroom. Allowed to grow larger with an open cap, it becomes a cup or flat mushroom. The brown-skinned strain of the same species is marketed as Swiss brown, cremini, or portobello (when fully mature).

Originally cultivated in France in the 17th century, Agaricus bisporus now accounts for roughly a third of all mushrooms produced worldwide. Its mild flavour, firm texture, and versatility in cooking have made it a global staple — eaten raw in salads, sautéed, grilled, stuffed, or added to sauces and soups.

Common Octopus.

The common periwinkle (Littorina littorea) is a small marine gastropod — a sea snail — found abundantly on rocky and stony shorelines across the North Atlantic, from Scandinavia to the Iberian Peninsula and from Labrador to the mid-Atlantic coast of the United States. The snails are typically 2–3 centimetres across with a dark, spiralled shell.

Periwinkles have been gathered and eaten in coastal communities for thousands of years. They are particularly associated with the food cultures of Ireland, Scotland, Wales, Brittany, and Portugal, where they are boiled in salted water and picked from the shell with a pin. The flavour is mild and briny, similar to other small shellfish.

Conch.

Boiled cabbage is one of the simplest and most traditional ways to prepare this everyday vegetable. Common green or white cabbage is cut into wedges or shredded, simmered in salted boiling water until tender, then drained. The result is soft, mild, and gently sweet — a far cry from the sulphurous reputation that overcooked cabbage sometimes earns.

The key to good boiled cabbage is restraint — cooking it just until tender rather than letting it go limp and grey. Well-prepared, it’s a comforting, understated side dish that pairs beautifully with roast meats, corned beef, sausages, and hearty stews.

Kale is a robust leafy green related to cabbage, broccoli, and cauliflower. Its sturdy, crinkled leaves hold up well to cooking, becoming tender and mellow once boiled — losing some of the raw leaf’s bitter edge in the process.

Cooked kale is a versatile side dish that pairs well with roast meats, grain bowls, and hearty soups. It features prominently in Southern American, Portuguese, and Northern European cooking, appearing in dishes like colcannon and caldo verde. In Australia, it’s become a popular addition to stir-fries, pasta dishes, and warm salads.

Quinoa is a seed — not a true grain — that has been cultivated in South America for thousands of years. When cooked, the tiny seeds swell and soften, developing a light, slightly chewy texture with a subtle nutty taste. Each seed unfurls a small spiral tail as it cooks, a sign it’s done.

Cooked quinoa works as a base for salads, a side dish in place of rice or couscous, or stirred through soups and stews for body. It comes in white, red, and black varieties — white being the mildest and fluffiest, red and black holding their shape better and offering a slightly earthier flavour.

Coral Mushroom.

Coral Trout.

Cordyceps is a genus of fungi with over 400 species, most of which are parasites of insects and other arthropods. The most well-known species are Cordyceps sinensis (now reclassified as Ophiocordyceps sinensis) — the caterpillar fungus of the Tibetan Plateau — and Cordyceps militaris, which is widely cultivated.

Ophiocordyceps sinensis has been used in traditional Chinese and Tibetan medicine for centuries. It infects ghost moth larvae underground, eventually killing the host and producing a fruiting body that emerges from the soil. Wild-harvested specimens are extraordinarily expensive — often more costly by weight than gold — due to limited supply and high demand, particularly in China.

Coriander (Coriandrum sativum) is an annual plant in the parsley family used for both its fresh leaves and its dried seeds — two products with very different flavour profiles. The leaves (known as cilantro in the Americas) have a bright, citrusy, polarising flavour — a genetic variation makes them taste soapy to a proportion of the population. The dried seeds are warm, nutty, and mildly sweet.

Coriander is one of the oldest known spice plants, with evidence of use stretching back to ancient Egypt. Today it is essential to an enormous range of cuisines: the fresh leaves in Mexican, Thai, Vietnamese, and Indian cooking; the ground seeds in Indian, Middle Eastern, North African, and Southeast Asian spice blends.

Fresh coriander is one of the most polarising herbs in the kitchen — people tend to love it or find it soapy and unpleasant, a reaction linked to specific genetic variations in smell receptors. For those who enjoy it, the leaves have a bright, citrusy, slightly peppery flavour that lifts everything from curries to tacos.

In Australian cooking, fresh coriander is used generously across a wide range of cuisines. It’s essential in Thai salads, Vietnamese pho garnishes, Indian chutneys, and Mexican salsas. The stems are flavourful too and are often blended into curry pastes and dressings — don’t throw them away.

The dried fruits of the coriander plant, used whole or ground as a warm, citrusy spice.

Prepared spice blends, marinades, and seasoning mixes where coriander is a defining ingredient.

Whole corn in various forms including fresh on the cob, kernels, hominy, and grits.

Traditional and snack-based corn products including chips, taco shells, and tortillas.

Milled corn products, starches, and oils used for cooking and baking.

Whole sweet corn ears in fresh, frozen, and various roasted or grilled culinary forms.

Corn salad has nothing to do with corn. It’s a small, delicate salad green also known as lamb’s lettuce or mâche, with soft, rounded leaves that grow in little rosettes. The name comes from its historical habit of growing as a weed in European cornfields — ‘corn’ in the old sense meaning grain crops generally.

The flavour is mild and slightly nutty, with none of the bitterness found in rocket or endive. It works beautifully in simple salads dressed with a light vinaigrette, and its tender texture makes it a good pairing with soft cheeses, beetroot, and walnuts. It’s popular in French cuisine, where it’s a classic winter salad green.

Costmary.

Cotton is best known as a textile fibre, but its seeds are an important by-product of the cotton industry. Once the lint is removed, cottonseed is crushed to extract oil and produce a high-protein meal used in animal feed.

Cottonseed oil is a mild, neutral-flavoured vegetable oil widely used in commercial food manufacturing, particularly for frying and in processed snack foods. It was one of the first vegetable oils produced at industrial scale in the United States and remains a common ingredient in blended cooking oils and margarine.

The raw seeds of the cotton plant, including primary products and roasted kernels.

Cottonseed flour is a protein-rich powder made from processed cottonseed. The ‘partially defatted’ label means much of the oil has been extracted but not all, giving the flour a richer texture than fully defatted versions. ‘Glandless’ refers to cotton varieties bred without the pigment glands that produce gossypol, making the seed inherently safer for human consumption.

This is a specialty ingredient rather than a household staple. It’s used in the food industry as a protein supplement in baked goods, snack foods, and meat extenders. Its mild, slightly nutty flavour doesn’t overpower other ingredients, making it a functional addition to processed foods.

Various forms of oil extracted from cotton seeds, ranging from culinary to industrial applications.

The cow (Bos taurus) is one of the most widely farmed animals in the world, providing beef, milk, and a range of by-products. Cattle were domesticated from wild aurochs roughly 10,000 years ago in the Near East and have since been bred into hundreds of specialised breeds.

Beef cattle produce a wide range of cuts — from premium steaks like tenderloin to working cuts like chuck and flank, as well as trim used in mince and processed products. Dairy cattle produce milk that forms the basis for cheese, yoghurt, butter, and cream. Bones are used for stocks and broths.

Cowpea.

Fresh and simply prepared crab meat.

Crabapple.

Crackers and savoury biscuits are a broad category of dry, crisp baked goods designed for snacking or as a vehicle for other foods. They range from plain water crackers and cream crackers to flavoured varieties with herbs, seeds, or cheese.

In Australia, crackers are a staple of cheese platters, afternoon tea, and casual entertaining. Brands like Jatz, Savoy, and Vita-Weat are household names. They’re also a go-to for dips, pâté, and spreads, or simply eaten on their own as a light snack.

Cranberries are firm, glossy red berries with an intensely tart flavour that makes them almost inedible raw. They come into their own when cooked with sugar or dried, which tempers the acidity and brings out their fruity depth.

While not widely grown in Australia, cranberries are a familiar ingredient thanks to imported dried cranberries, juices, and sauces. Dried cranberries (sometimes called craisins) are popular in salads, muesli, and baking. Cranberry sauce is a classic accompaniment to roast turkey and other poultry.

The cranberry (Vaccinium macrocarpon) is a low-growing, woody perennial native to the bogs and wetlands of north-eastern North America. The fruit is too tart to eat raw in quantity, so it is almost always processed — dried and sweetened, made into juice or sauce, or used as an ingredient in baked goods and cereals.

Cranberries have been harvested by Indigenous peoples of North America for thousands of years, used as food, dye, and medicine. Commercial cultivation began in the early 19th century in Massachusetts and has since expanded to Wisconsin, Quebec, British Columbia, and parts of Chile.

The cranberry bean, also known as the borlotti or roman bean, presented in its raw, dried, canned, and cooked forms.

Unsweetened cranberry juice is the pure, undiluted juice of cranberries — intensely tart and not for the faint-hearted. It has a bold, astringent flavour quite different from the sweetened cranberry drinks most people are familiar with.

It’s commonly diluted with water or mixed into smoothies and cocktails. Some people drink it regularly as a tart, refreshing beverage, often mixed with sparkling water or apple juice to balance the acidity.

Unsweetened cranberry juice is available in most Australian supermarkets, typically in the health food or juice aisle. Check the label — “100% juice” or “no added sugar” versions are distinct from cranberry juice cocktails, which contain significant added sweetener.

Sweetened beverage blends and juice cocktails where cranberry is a primary or featured flavor.

Processed cranberry condiments, including jellied, whole-berry, and relish varieties.

Cream of mushroom soup is a smooth, velvety soup made from mushrooms cooked in a cream or milk-based sauce thickened with flour or starch. In its condensed tinned form, it’s designed to be diluted with water or milk before serving.

Beyond eating as soup, condensed cream of mushroom is one of the most widely used convenience ingredients in home cooking. It appears in casseroles, stroganoffs, pasta bakes, and slow-cooker dishes, where it serves as an instant creamy sauce base.

A crystalline byproduct of winemaking used as a leavening agent and stabilizer in baking.

Cream of vegetable soup powder is a convenience product — a dry mix of dehydrated vegetables, milk solids, starch, and seasonings that reconstitutes into a smooth, creamy soup with hot water. It’s the kind of thing you find in the pantry aisle alongside stock cubes and gravy powder.

Beyond a quick bowl of soup, the powder is handy as a flavour base for casseroles, pot pies, and creamy pasta sauces. A spoonful mixed into a béchamel or stirred through rice adds instant savoury depth.

Cream style corn is a tinned product where sweet corn kernels sit in a thick, starchy sauce made from the corn itself. It’s not actually made with cream — the name refers to the texture, which comes from pulped corn kernels and their natural starches.

It’s a pantry staple in many Australian households, used in corn fritters, chowders, casseroles, and as a simple side dish. Corn fritters made with cream style corn are a particularly popular quick meal — just add flour, egg, and seasoning.

Crème de menthe is a intensely sweet liqueur flavoured with peppermint or spearmint. It comes in two forms: green (coloured with natural or artificial dyes) and white (clear), which taste identical. The name means “cream of mint” in French, though it contains no dairy.

It’s a classic cocktail ingredient — the Grasshopper and Stinger are its best-known vehicles — and it’s also used in desserts, drizzled over ice cream or folded into chocolate mousse. The white version is preferred when you want mint flavour without turning the drink green.

Also known as baby bellas, these are the immature brown stage of the common mushroom, offering a firmer texture and deeper flavor than white buttons.

Crenshaw Melon.

Crocodile.

Crookneck squash is a variety of summer squash (Cucurbita pepo) distinguished by its bulbous base, narrow curved neck, and bright yellow skin. Unlike winter squashes, it is harvested immature when the flesh is tender and the seeds are soft and edible.

The flavour is mild and slightly sweet, similar to zucchini. It can be sautéed, grilled, roasted, or used in fritters, soups, and casseroles. The skin is edible but can become bumpy and tougher as the fruit matures.

Crosne.

The cucumber (Cucumis sativus) is a creeping vine in the gourd family, grown for its elongated, water-rich fruit. Though botanically a fruit, it is treated as a vegetable in the kitchen. Cucumbers have been cultivated for at least 3,000 years, originating in South Asia and spreading along trade routes to Europe, Africa, and beyond.

There are two broad types: slicing cucumbers eaten fresh, and smaller pickling cucumbers preserved in brine or vinegar. In Australia, the most common varieties are the long continental (telegraph) cucumber and the shorter Lebanese cucumber, both eaten raw in salads, sandwiches, dips, and cold soups.

Condiments made from chopped pickled cucumbers, typically used as a topping for sandwiches and grilled meats.

Culantro.

Composite vegetable starters and simple traditional vegetable-heavy dishes.

Aspergillus Niger.

Aspergillus Oryzae.

Geotrichum Candidum.

Cupuaçu (Theobroma grandiflorum) is a tropical tree in the cacao family, native to the Amazon rainforest of Brazil. The large, brown, oblong fruit contains creamy white pulp with a distinctive tangy, aromatic flavour often described as a blend of chocolate, pineapple, and pear.

The pulp is widely consumed in the Amazon region as juice, ice cream, mousse, and jam. The seeds contain a fat similar to cocoa butter, sometimes called cupuaçu butter, which is used in chocolate-like confections (called cupulate) and in cosmetics. The fruit holds deep cultural significance in Amazonian communities, where it has been consumed for centuries.

The rich vegetable fat and oil extracted from cupuaçu seeds, often used as a cocoa butter alternative.

Fresh currant berries and their primary fruit forms, serving as the foundational archetype for both red and black currants.

Curry blends are ready-made spice mixtures that bring together the core aromatics of South and Southeast Asian cooking in a single jar. While there is no single authentic “curry powder” — the concept was largely popularised through British colonial trade — these blends have become a pantry staple in their own right, particularly in Australian home cooking.

A typical blend includes turmeric (for colour), ground coriander and cumin (for earthy warmth), chilli (for heat), and supporting spices like fenugreek, mustard seed, and black pepper. Variations range from mild Madras-style to fiery vindaloo blends. Some include ginger, cardamom, or cinnamon for added complexity.

Curry paste is a concentrated blend of fresh aromatics pounded or blended into a thick, intensely flavoured paste. Green curry paste — the most popular variety in Australia — is built on green chillies, lemongrass, galangal, garlic, shallots, coriander roots, kaffir lime zest, and shrimp paste, though vegan versions omit the shrimp paste.

Other common styles include red curry paste (using dried red chillies), yellow paste (milder, with turmeric), and massaman paste (warm spices like cinnamon and cardamom). Each produces a distinctly different curry when cooked out in coconut milk with protein and vegetables.

Curry powder is a broad term for blended ground spices formulated to approximate the complex spice combinations used in South Asian cooking. Turmeric provides the signature golden colour, while coriander, cumin, chilli, and fenugreek form the aromatic backbone. The exact proportions vary by brand and regional style.

In Australia, curry powder has been a kitchen staple since well before the wave of migration that brought authentic regional Indian and Sri Lankan cooking to the country. It remains a go-to seasoning for dishes like curried sausages, curried eggs, and pumpkin soup — comfort food that reflects a distinctly Australian take on spiced cooking.

The curry tree (Murraya koenigii) is a small tropical tree native to the Indian subcontinent. Its leaves — commonly called curry leaves — are used as a fresh herb in South and South-East Asian cooking, prized for their distinctive citrusy, slightly nutty aroma that is released when the leaves are fried in oil or ghee.

Despite the name, curry leaves are unrelated to curry powder. They are a foundational ingredient in South Indian, Sri Lankan, and Malaysian cuisines, used in dals, curries, chutneys, and rice dishes. The flavour does not survive drying well, so fresh leaves are strongly preferred.

Cuttlefish.

Dab.

Daikon.

Damson.

The dandelion (Taraxacum officinale) is a perennial plant found on every inhabited continent, often dismissed as a lawn weed. However, its young leaves have been eaten as a bitter green for centuries across European, Asian, and Middle Eastern cuisines.

Dandelion greens have a pleasantly bitter flavour similar to radicchio or endive. They are most tender and least bitter when harvested young, before the plant flowers. The leaves can be eaten raw in salads, sautéed with garlic and oil, or added to soups and pasta dishes. The roots can also be roasted and used as a coffee substitute.

Dandelion greens are the jagged, lance-shaped leaves of Taraxacum officinale — the same plant most Australians know as a lawn weed. The young leaves are mildly bitter with a peppery edge, somewhat similar to rocket or endive. As the plant matures and flowers, the bitterness intensifies.

In European and Mediterranean cuisines, dandelion greens have been gathered and eaten for centuries. Young leaves are tossed raw into salads, often paired with warm bacon dressing, toasted nuts, or a sharp vinaigrette to balance the bitterness. Older leaves are better sautéed with garlic and olive oil, wilted into pasta, or added to soups.

Chocolate with a high percentage of cocoa solids and little to no milk, ranging from semisweet to extra dark.

Canonical entry for dry dark red kidney beans, grouping mature seeds with technical moisture-adjusted variants.

The date palm (Phoenix dactylifera) is one of the oldest cultivated fruit trees, grown in arid and semi-arid regions for at least 6,000 years. The fruit — dates — are a dense, sweet staple food across the Middle East, North Africa, and South Asia, eaten fresh (as soft, semi-dry, or dry varieties) or processed into syrup, paste, and sugar.

Dates are a significant source of energy and have played a central role in the food cultures of desert communities. Medjool and Deglet Noor are the most commercially important varieties worldwide. In some regions, the sap of the date palm is also tapped and consumed fresh as a sweet drink, fermented into toddy, or boiled down into palm sugar (jaggery).

Date-based snack balls — sometimes called bliss balls or energy balls — are a popular grab-and-go option made by blending dates with nuts, seeds, coconut, or cacao. The natural stickiness of dates acts as the binder, holding everything together without cooking.

They sit somewhere between confectionery and trail mix, offering a dense, chewy texture with rich caramel sweetness. Common Australian variations include combinations with macadamia, wattle seed, or native pepperberry.

The sweet, edible fruit of the date palm, including fresh, dried, and specific cultivar varieties like Medjool and Deglet Noor.

Consolidated entries for the flesh of the Davidson plum, a native Australian fruit used in both culinary and commercial applications.

Deer are hoofed mammals found across every continent except Antarctica and Australia, though several species have been introduced to Australia and New Zealand. The most commonly eaten species include red deer, fallow deer, and white-tailed deer. Venison — the culinary term for deer meat — has been a staple protein source for Indigenous peoples worldwide for thousands of years.

Today deer are both hunted wild and raised on farms. The meat is notably lean compared to beef or lamb, with a distinctive, slightly gamey flavour that varies depending on the species, diet, and whether the animal was wild or farmed. Common cuts include loin, tenderloin, shoulder, and leg, which suit a range of cooking methods from quick searing to slow braising.

Delicata Squash.

Dent Corn.

Desert Truffle.

Marshmallow cream — sometimes called marshmallow fluff — is a soft, pillowy spread with a sweet vanilla flavour. It sits somewhere between a meringue and a melted marshmallow in texture: smooth, sticky, and easy to dollop or drizzle.

It’s used as a topping for ice cream, hot chocolate, and sundaes, as a filling for sandwich biscuits, and as a key ingredient in no-bake fudge and slice recipes. In the United States it’s a staple, and it’s steadily found its way into Australian kitchens and cafés.

Diet carbonated beverages are fizzy drinks that replace sugar with low-calorie sweeteners — in this case sodium saccharin — to deliver sweetness without the kilojoules. They come in a range of flavours including lemon-lime, orange, ginger ale, and various fruit blends.

These drinks fill the same role as regular soft drinks: a cold, fizzy refreshment on their own or as a mixer. The absence of sugar gives them a lighter, sometimes slightly different mouthfeel compared to their full-sugar counterparts.

Diet cola is the sugar-free version of the world’s most popular soft drink flavour — the same dark colour, caramel-spice taste, and fizz, but sweetened with intense sweeteners like aspartame, sucralose, or stevia blends instead of sugar.

It’s consumed the same way as regular cola: chilled from the can, over ice, or as a mixer with spirits. The flavour profile is close to the original, though many people notice a slightly different aftertaste depending on the sweetener used.

Distilled spirits are the concentrated backbone of the drinks world — produced by fermenting a base material and then distilling it to raise the alcohol content well above what fermentation alone can achieve. The major categories each start from different raw materials: whisky from grain, rum from sugarcane, brandy from wine, vodka from grain or potatoes, and gin from a neutral spirit redistilled with botanicals.

Spirits are typically consumed in small measures — neat, on the rocks, or as the base of mixed drinks and cocktails. Each category carries its own flavour spectrum, from the peaty intensity of Scotch whisky to the juniper-forward botanicals of gin.

Distilled vinegar — also called white vinegar or spirit vinegar — is the most neutral-flavoured vinegar available. It’s clear, colourless, and sharply acidic without the fruitiness of wine vinegar or the maltiness of brown vinegar.

In the kitchen it’s used for pickling, dressings, and anywhere a clean acidity is needed without additional flavour. It’s also widely used for cleaning, descaling, and as a household all-rounder — a dual-purpose pantry staple.

Dock — most commonly sorrel or curled dock — is a wild-growing leafy green found across temperate regions, including much of Australia where it often grows as a weed in gardens and pastures. The leaves have a distinctive sour, citrusy bite thanks to their oxalic acid content.

Young leaves are tender enough to eat raw in salads, where they add a sharp, refreshing contrast. Older leaves are better cooked — wilted into soups, stirred through eggs, or used in sauces in the French tradition where sorrel sauce is a classic pairing with fish.

Donkeys (Equus asinus) were domesticated from the African wild ass around 5,000 years ago, originally as working animals. While donkey milk has been consumed since antiquity — Cleopatra is said to have bathed in it — commercial donkey dairy is a relatively niche industry, concentrated mainly in southern Europe, the Balkans, and parts of Central Asia.

Donkey milk is thin and slightly sweet, with a composition remarkably similar to human milk. It contains less fat and protein than cow’s milk but more lactose. It has historically been used as an infant formula substitute in some cultures, though today it is primarily sold as a specialty dairy product.

Doves and pigeons belong to the family Columbidae and are essentially the same group of birds — “dove” typically refers to smaller species. Several species are eaten worldwide, including the mourning dove, turtle dove, and rock dove (the common pigeon). Dove has been hunted and eaten across Europe, the Middle East, Asia, and the Americas for thousands of years.

Dove meat is dark, lean, and rich in flavour, with a texture finer than chicken. Each bird yields a small amount of meat, making it a delicacy rather than an everyday protein. It is most commonly pan-fried, grilled, or roasted whole.

Primary culinary forms of dove meat, encompassing raw muscle and prepared squab.

Dover Sole.

Dragon Fruit.

Dried peaches are made by removing most of the moisture from ripe peach flesh, intensifying the fruit’s natural sweetness and producing a chewy, concentrated snack. They have a rich amber to orange colour and a flavour that balances sweetness with a pleasant tartness.

They work well as a snack on their own, chopped into muesli or trail mix, or rehydrated in warm water or juice for use in baking, compotes, and tagines. Dried peaches pair naturally with almonds, yoghurt, and warm spices like cinnamon and cardamom.

Ajwain.

Arame.

Barberry.

Dried basil is made from the leaves of the sweet basil plant, dehydrated to create a shelf-stable seasoning. While it loses some of the bright, peppery punch of fresh basil, the drying process concentrates a warm, slightly minty character that works well in slow-cooked dishes where fresh basil would wilt away.

It’s a staple in pasta sauces, pizza, soups, and stews, and blends well with oregano, thyme, and garlic. Dried basil suits long cooking times better than fresh, making it ideal for casseroles and braises where it can infuse steadily.

Black Cardamom.

Black Cumin.

Black Fonio.

Black Fungus.

Mature seeds (fava beans) typically found in dried, canned, or rehydrated and boiled forms.

Caraway.

Cascabel Chili.

Cinnamon.

Clove.

Desiccated coconut is the white flesh of mature coconuts that has been shredded or grated and then dried to remove nearly all its moisture. It has a mild, sweet coconut flavour and a fine, dry texture that rehydrates quickly when mixed into batters or simmered in liquid.

It’s a pantry staple in Australia, used extensively in lamingtons, coconut slice, Anzac biscuits, and curries. Desiccated coconut comes in various grades — fine, medium, and coarse — with fine being the most common for baking. It also appears in South-East Asian sambals, Indian chutneys, and as a coating for sweets and confectionery.

Dehydrated cranberry fruits, typically sweetened for snacking or baking.

Cubeb.

Cumin.

Dill.

Epazote.

Dried European chestnuts are the peeled, dehydrated nuts of the sweet chestnut tree. Unlike most tree nuts, chestnuts are low in fat and high in starch, giving them a texture and culinary role closer to a grain or potato than to almonds or walnuts. When dried, they become hard and shelf-stable, ready to be rehydrated for cooking.

Once soaked or simmered, dried chestnuts have a crumbly, floury texture and a gentle sweetness. They’re used in European winter dishes — stuffings, soups, pasta sauces, and desserts like Mont Blanc. In Italian cooking, dried chestnuts are ground into flour for making chestnut bread, pancakes, and cakes.

Dehydrated and preserved fig forms, including cooked and uncooked preparations.

Guajillo Chili.

Hijiki.

Dried lychee is the dehydrated flesh of the lychee fruit, a tropical stone fruit prized for its fragrant, floral sweetness. Drying concentrates the flavour into something resembling a cross between a raisin and a perfumed date, with a chewy, slightly leathery texture.

Dried lychees are a traditional snack in China and South-East Asia, where they’ve been preserved this way for centuries. They can be eaten as they are, added to trail mixes, or rehydrated and used in desserts, teas, and sweet soups. They pair well with other tropical dried fruits and make an interesting addition to fruit cakes.

Dehydrated mango slices and snacks, ranging from natural dried fruit to sweetened varieties.

Dried parsley is made from the leaves of the parsley plant — usually the flat-leaf (continental) variety — dehydrated to create a convenient, long-lasting seasoning. It has a milder, more muted flavour than fresh parsley, with grassy, slightly peppery notes that blend easily into a wide range of dishes.

While fresh parsley is generally preferred for finishing dishes, the dried form is useful in spice blends, dry rubs, stuffing mixes, and any recipe where it will be cooked for an extended period. It’s a standard component of dried herb mixes like bouquet garni and herbes de Provence.

Dried pears are made from ripe pear halves or slices that have been dehydrated to a soft, chewy texture. They have a gentle, honeyed sweetness that’s less assertive than most dried fruits, making them an elegant snack and a versatile ingredient in both sweet and savoury cooking.

They pair beautifully with cheese — especially blue cheese and aged cheddar — and work well in winter salads, compotes, and baked goods. Rehydrated dried pears can be poached in wine or used in tarts and cakes. They also make a refined addition to a cheese platter or charcuterie board.

Dried tart cherries are made from sour cherry varieties, most commonly Montmorency, that have been pitted, dried, and lightly sweetened to balance their natural sharpness. They have a chewy texture and a concentrated fruity flavour that sits between a cranberry and a raisin.

They’re a popular addition to muesli, trail mix, and baking — particularly scones, muffins, and chocolate-based desserts where their tartness cuts through richness. They also work well in savoury contexts, tossed through grain salads or added to tagines and braises.

Dried thyme is one of the most versatile herbs in the kitchen. It has a warm, slightly minty, earthy flavour that intensifies when dried, making it well suited to long-cooked dishes where fresh herbs would lose their punch.

It’s a cornerstone of French cuisine — essential in bouquet garni and herbes de Provence — and appears in countless roasts, stews, soups, and casseroles. It pairs naturally with lamb, chicken, root vegetables, and tomato-based sauces. A pinch added early in cooking builds a savoury depth that’s hard to replicate with other herbs.

Plain, uncarbonated drinking water from municipal or natural tap sources.

Domestic ducks descend primarily from the wild mallard, with the exception of the Muscovy duck, which was independently domesticated in South America. Ducks have been farmed in China for over 4,000 years and remain central to East Asian cuisines. They are also deeply embedded in French cooking traditions, particularly in the south-west.

Duck is valued for its darker, richer meat compared to chicken, its crisp-rendering skin, and its versatile fat. The breast, leg, and liver (particularly as foie gras) are the most prized cuts. Duck eggs are larger than chicken eggs with a richer yolk and are widely used in Asian baking and cuisine. Rendered duck fat is a cooking medium in its own right, valued for roasting and frying.

Alternative poultry species including duck, goose, quail, and specialty game hens.

Dulse.

Dungeness crab is a premium wild-caught crustacean native to the west coast of North America, from Alaska down to California. It’s named after the port town of Dungeness in Washington State and is one of the most commercially important crab species in the Pacific.

The meat is sweet, delicate, and mildly briny — prized for eating simply with melted butter, in crab cakes, or tossed through pasta. The body yields generous flakes of white meat, while the legs provide smaller, equally flavourful portions. It’s less commonly found in Australian fishmongers than local mud crab or blue swimmer crab, but appears in specialty seafood markets and imported frozen.

Durian.

Durum Wheat.

Earth Chestnut.

Earthnut Pea.

Eastern Oyster.

Eddoe.

Eel is a long, snake-like fish found in both fresh and saltwater environments around the world. Its flesh is distinctively rich, oily, and slightly sweet, with a firm texture that holds up well to grilling, smoking, and braising.

In Japanese cuisine, grilled freshwater eel (unagi) glazed with a sweet soy-based sauce is one of the most celebrated dishes, served over rice as unadon. In European traditions, eel is smoked, jellied, or stewed — smoked eel is a delicacy in the Netherlands, Scandinavia, and parts of the UK. In Australia, eel has a long history as a food source for Aboriginal communities, particularly the short-finned eel found in rivers and lakes of south-eastern Australia.

Egg products encompass a range of processed forms of eggs — liquid, dried, frozen, or otherwise transformed — used as ingredients in manufactured foods rather than sold as whole shell eggs. These products are derived primarily from chicken eggs and are fundamental to the food manufacturing industry.

Processed egg products appear in an enormous range of foods including baked goods, confectionery, pasta, sauces, mayonnaise, and ice cream. They provide structure, emulsification, leavening, colour, and binding properties that are difficult to replicate with other ingredients. The egg product industry processes eggs that may not meet the grading standards for retail shell eggs, reducing food waste in the supply chain.

Egg custard and flan are classic baked desserts built on the simplest of foundations: eggs, milk, sugar, and vanilla. When baked in a water bath, the mixture sets into a silky, wobbling custard with a delicate texture somewhere between a pudding and a crème caramel.

Baked egg custard is a staple of home cooking across many cultures. In its plainest form it’s a comforting British-style dessert, often finished with a grating of nutmeg. As flan or crème caramel, it’s inverted onto a plate with a layer of liquid caramel — a beloved dessert across Latin America, Spain, France, and Southeast Asia.

Processed egg formats including liquid, frozen, and dehydrated powders used primarily for industrial or high-volume food service.

Eggnog is a thick, sweet, custard-like beverage with roots in British and American holiday traditions. It’s made by blending eggs with milk, cream, and sugar into a smooth, rich drink that can be served chilled or warm, and is often spiked with rum, brandy, or bourbon.

While eggnog is most strongly associated with Christmas in North America, it has a following in Australia too — particularly among those with British or American heritage. Commercial versions are available seasonally in some supermarkets, though homemade eggnog remains popular for those who enjoy the ritual of making it.

Fresh eggplant in various botanical varieties and standard culinary preparations such as boiling and roasting.

Egyptian Walking Onion.

Einkorn Wheat.

Elderberry.

Elephant Foot Yam.

Elephant Garlic.

Elk.

Groups different preparations and states of Emi-Tsunomata seaweed, including whole, dry, and rehydrated forms.

Emmer Wheat.

Emu.

Enchilada sauce is a smooth, savoury red sauce that forms the backbone of enchiladas — tortillas rolled around a filling, covered in sauce, and baked. A mild red version offers the earthy, slightly sweet flavour of dried chillies and tomato without significant heat, making it approachable for most palates.

Beyond enchiladas, it’s a handy sauce to keep on hand for Mexican-inspired cooking: spooned over burritos, used as a braising liquid for pulled meats, or stirred into rice and bean dishes for extra flavour. Ready-to-serve versions save considerable time compared to making it from scratch with dried chillies.

Endeavour prawns are a wild-caught species found in the warm tropical waters of northern Australia, from Western Australia’s north-west coast across to Queensland. They’re smaller than king or tiger prawns but have a sweet, delicate flavour that makes them popular for everyday cooking.

Two species are commonly sold under the Endeavour name: the blue endeavour and the red endeavour. Both are caught as part of Australia’s northern prawn fishery, one of the country’s most valuable wild-catch fisheries. Their size makes them ideal for curries, stir-fries, pasta dishes, and prawn cocktails, where their sweetness can shine without being overwhelmed by heavy sauces.

Endive.

Energy and functional drinks are carbonated or still beverages designed to provide a quick boost of alertness, primarily through caffeine, often alongside ingredients like taurine, B-group vitamins, and various botanical extracts. Sugar-free versions use artificial sweeteners to deliver the stimulant effect without the kilojoules.

They’ve become one of the fastest-growing beverage categories in Australia, popular with shift workers, students, athletes, and anyone looking for a pick-me-up beyond coffee or tea. Brands range from the globally ubiquitous to local Australian entries, available in virtually every servo, convenience store, and supermarket.

Standard caffeinated energy beverages, including both generic formulations and specific flavored commercial products.

Citrus energy drinks combine the sharp, tangy brightness of lemon, lime, or orange flavouring with the stimulant kick of caffeine and sugar. They tend to be more approachable than their unflavoured counterparts, with a taste closer to a traditional soft drink.

This style of energy drink is one of the most popular varieties on the Australian market, often positioned as a daytime refreshment as much as a functional stimulant. They’re widely available in servos, supermarkets, and convenience stores.

The English walnut (Juglans regia) — also called the Persian or common walnut — originated in Central Asia and has been cultivated for thousands of years. Despite the name “English,” the tree is not native to England; the name arose because English merchants were the primary traders of the nut in many markets. It is by far the most commercially important walnut species.

Walnuts are one of the oldest known tree foods, with archaeological evidence of consumption dating back over 9,000 years. The kernel has a distinctive, slightly bitter, earthy flavour and a rich, oily texture. Walnuts are eaten raw, toasted, in baked goods, in salads, and pressed for their oil. The trees are also valued for their timber. Major producing countries include China, the United States (particularly California), Chile, and Iran.

English walnuts — the common walnuts you’ll find in any Australian supermarket — have a mild, slightly bitter flavour and a satisfyingly creamy-yet-crunchy texture. Their two-lobed kernels sit inside a hard, round shell that cracks open with a good squeeze from a nutcracker.

They’re enormously versatile in the kitchen: tossed through salads, folded into banana bread, blitzed into pesto, or simply eaten by the handful as a snack. Walnuts pair particularly well with blue cheese, honey, and bitter greens like rocket or radicchio.

Enhanced water sits somewhere between plain water and a soft drink — lightly sweetened, gently flavoured, and fortified with vitamins and minerals. It appeals to people who find plain water boring but want something less sugary than juice or soft drink.

These products come in a wide range of fruit flavours, from tropical blends to berry and citrus. Some are sweetened with sugar, others with stevia or artificial sweeteners, and many use a combination of both to balance taste and kilojoule content.

Enoki (Flammulina velutipes) is a small mushroom characterised by its long, thin stems and tiny caps, typically sold in tightly packed clusters. Wild enoki looks quite different from the cultivated form — wild specimens are darker, shorter-stemmed, and grow on dead hardwood trees in autumn and winter. The elongated, pale form familiar in supermarkets is the result of growing the mushroom in darkness with restricted airflow.

Enoki is native to East Asia and has been cultivated in Japan for centuries. It is a staple ingredient in Japanese, Korean, and Chinese cooking, where it is added to soups, hot pots, noodle dishes, and stir-fries. The mushroom has a mild, slightly fruity flavour and a pleasantly crunchy texture that holds up well in liquid-based dishes.

Consolidates technical synonyms and forms of the Enoki mushroom, including its Japanese name Enokitake and whole fruiting body descriptions.

Enset.

Eppaw — also known as the American pawpaw — is a soft, custardy fruit that grows wild in the forests of eastern North America. It has a tropical flavour often compared to a cross between banana and mango, which is remarkable for a fruit that thrives in temperate climates.

The fruit is rarely seen in commercial markets because it bruises easily and has a very short shelf life once ripe. It’s primarily foraged or grown in home gardens by enthusiasts. The creamy flesh is eaten fresh, scooped straight from the skin, or used in desserts like ice cream, custards, and pies.

The edible roots and seedlings of the alpine sweetvetch (Hedysarum alpinum), including those traditionally harvested from underground caches known as mouse nuts.

Espresso is the foundation of Australian coffee culture — the intense, aromatic shot that underpins flat whites, long blacks, cappuccinos, and lattes. A well-pulled espresso has a rich, complex flavour with balanced bitterness, a syrupy body, and a layer of golden-brown crema on top.

Australia’s espresso culture is among the strongest in the world, shaped by waves of Italian and Greek immigration from the mid-20th century onwards. The standard here is high — Australians are famously particular about their coffee, and a good local café is a point of neighbourhood pride.

Eureka Lemon.

European anchovies are tiny silver fish — rarely more than 15 centimetres long — with a flavour impact that far outweighs their size. Fresh, they’re delicate and mildly fishy, but most people encounter them cured in salt or oil, where they develop the pungent, deeply savoury umami punch they’re famous for.

In cooking, anchovies are one of the great secret weapons. Melted into a hot pan with olive oil and garlic, they dissolve into a savoury base that lifts pasta sauces, dressings, and braises without tasting overtly fishy. They’re essential in Caesar salad dressing, puttanesca sauce, and bagna cauda. On pizza, they remain polarising but beloved by their devotees.

The primary culinary archetype for fresh European chestnuts, encompassing raw seeds and common cooked preparations like roasting and boiling.

The European plum (Prunus domestica) is one of the most widely cultivated stone fruits in temperate regions worldwide. It likely originated as a natural hybrid in the Caucasus region and has been grown in Europe for over two thousand years. The fruit comes in hundreds of varieties, with skin colours ranging from dark purple-black to red, green, and golden yellow.

European plums are eaten fresh, cooked into jams and sauces, baked into pastries, fermented into brandies like slivovitz, and dried to produce prunes. The drying varieties (particularly d’Agen and related cultivars) are an important commercial product. Prunes have long been a pantry staple valued for their shelf stability and concentrated sweetness.

European turbot is one of the most highly regarded fish in the world, prized by chefs for its firm, snow-white flesh and subtle, elegant flavour. It’s a large, diamond-shaped flatfish that can grow to impressive sizes, with both eyes on its dark upper side — a classic flatfish adaptation for life on the seabed.

Turbot’s flesh is dense and meaty with large, clean flakes, holding up beautifully to roasting, grilling, and pan-frying. In fine dining, it’s often served simply — roasted on the bone with butter and lemon — to let the quality of the fish speak for itself. It pairs well with rich sauces like beurre blanc or hollandaise.

Fairy Ring Mushroom.

Farmed rabbit is a lean, fine-grained meat with a mild flavour often compared to chicken, though with a slightly gamey, earthy undertone that gives it more character. It’s lighter and more delicate than wild rabbit, which tends to be tougher and stronger in flavour due to the animal’s diet and activity level.

Rabbit is popular across European, Chinese, and North African cuisines. Classic preparations include slow-braised rabbit ragù, rabbit confit, mustard-braised rabbit, and rabbit pie. The meat takes well to slow cooking methods that keep it moist, as its leanness means it can dry out quickly with high-heat methods. The saddle (loin) and hind legs are the most prized cuts.

The fava bean (Vicia faba) is one of the oldest cultivated crops, with archaeological evidence of its use dating back to at least 6000 BCE in the eastern Mediterranean. Known as broad beans in Australia and the UK, they are a cool-season legume grown worldwide in temperate and subtropical climates.

Fava beans are eaten at several stages of maturity. Young pods can be eaten whole, fresh beans are shelled and cooked as a green vegetable, and mature dried beans are used in soups, stews, and dishes like Egyptian ful medames. In Australia, broad beans are a familiar backyard crop and a common sight at farmers’ markets in spring and early summer.

Fresh fava beans in their natural pod, representing the whole raw vegetable and its constituent seeds.

Feijoa.

Fennel.

Fenugreek (Trigonella foenum-graecum) is an annual legume whose seeds and leaves are used as both a spice and a vegetable. The plant is native to the Mediterranean and western Asia and has been cultivated for thousands of years—fenugreek seeds have been found in Iraqi archaeological sites dating to 4000 BCE.

The seeds have a complex flavour profile—bitter, nutty, and slightly sweet, with a distinctive maple-like aroma caused by the compound sotolone. They are a key ingredient in Indian curry powders, Ethiopian berbere spice blends, and many Middle Eastern spice mixes. Fenugreek seeds are used whole, crushed, or ground, and are sometimes lightly toasted to mellow their bitterness. The fresh leaves (called methi) are used as a herb and leafy green in Indian cooking.

Groups technical and redundant entries for whole and dried fenugreek seeds into a single canonical spice archetype.

Groups the raw, frozen, and generic forms of the edible fronds of the ostrich fern.

Field Blewit.

Field Mushroom.

The fig (Ficus carica) is one of the earliest fruits cultivated by humans, with evidence of fig cultivation in the Jordan Valley dating to around 9400 BCE—possibly predating grain farming. The tree is native to the Mediterranean and western Asia and belongs to the same family as mulberries and breadfruit.

Fresh figs are highly perishable, with a soft, yielding texture and a honey-like sweetness when fully ripe. They come in many varieties, from pale green-skinned types with pink interiors to deep purple-black figs with dark red flesh. Dried figs are a pantry staple with a much longer shelf life, used in baking, snacking, and confectionery. Figs are significant in the cuisines of the Mediterranean, the Middle East, and North Africa.

Finger Lime.

Finger Millet.

Fingerroot.

Fireweed (Chamerion angustifolium, also known as rosebay willowherb) is a perennial wildflower found across the Northern Hemisphere, from Alaska and Canada through northern Europe and Asia. It is named for its tendency to rapidly colonise burnt or disturbed ground, often being the first plant to appear after a wildfire.

The young leaves and shoots of fireweed have a long history of use as a wild food. They can be eaten raw in salads, steamed as a green vegetable, or brewed into tea. In Russia, fermented fireweed tea (Ivan chai) has been a traditional beverage for centuries and has seen a commercial revival in recent years. The plant’s flavour is mild and slightly sweet when young, becoming more bitter as it matures.

Edible leaves of the fireweed plant, including raw and young growth stages used in traditional and regional cuisines.

This entry represents fish as a broad food category, encompassing a wide range of freshwater and saltwater species consumed as food. Fish is one of the most important animal protein sources globally, with thousands of species eaten across different cultures and cuisines.

Fish provides a variety of edible products beyond fillets and whole cooked fish. Roe (fish eggs) is eaten fresh, salted, or smoked across many cultures—from Japanese ikura to European caviar. Swim bladders are used in some Asian cuisines and in the production of isinglass (a clarifying agent). Fish bones are used for stock, and rendered fish fat has both culinary and traditional uses. In Indigenous food traditions of Alaska and northern North America, virtually every part of the fish is used.

General fish structures, specialty parts like maw, and unique cultural preparations.

Nutritional and culinary oils derived from various fish species.

Fish eggs (roe) from various species and roe-based spreads.

Flageolet Bean.

Traditional global flatbreads including pita, naan, chapati, and flour tortillas.

Flatfish — including flounder, sole, and their relatives — are bottom-dwelling fish with both eyes on one side of their flattened bodies. They yield thin, delicate fillets with a mild, sweet flavour and fine, tender texture that makes them popular with people who prefer less “fishy” fish.

In Australia, common flatfish species include flounder found in southern waters. Their mild flavour makes them extremely versatile — they take well to pan-frying, grilling, steaming, and poaching. Classic preparations include sole meunière (pan-fried in butter with lemon) and various Asian-style steamed dishes with ginger and soy.

Flathead refers to several species of bottom-dwelling fish in the family Platycephalidae, native to Australian and Indo-Pacific waters. The most commercially important species in Australia are dusky flathead, tiger flathead, rock flathead, and sand flathead. They are characterised by their broad, flattened heads, tapering bodies, and mottled brown-grey colouring that camouflages them on the sandy or muddy seabed.

Flathead is one of Australia’s most popular eating fish. Its firm, white, mildly flavoured flesh makes it a mainstay of fish and chip shops across the country, and it is equally suited to grilling, baking, and pan-frying. Tiger flathead from southern Australian waters is particularly well regarded.

Canonical grouping for flathead fillets including raw, baked, and steamed preparation forms.

Flax (Linum usitatissimum) is one of the oldest cultivated plants, grown for both its fibre (used to make linen fabric) and its oily seeds (known as linseed or flaxseed). The plant originated in the Fertile Crescent and has been cultivated for at least 9,000 years.

As a food, flax seeds are valued for their high content of alpha-linolenic acid (an omega-3 fatty acid) and their mucilaginous properties—they absorb water and form a gel, which makes them useful as a thickener and egg substitute in baking. The seeds are eaten whole, ground into meal, or pressed into flaxseed oil. They have a mild, nutty flavour and are commonly added to bread, cereals, smoothies, and baked goods.

Flaxseed — known as linseed in Australia — is a tiny, flat seed with a hard, glossy shell. It comes in two main varieties: brown and golden, which are nutritionally similar. The seeds have a mild, nutty flavour and a slightly earthy taste.

Flaxseed has become a popular addition to breads, muesli, smoothies, and baked goods. The seeds can be eaten whole, but are more commonly consumed ground (as linseed meal) since the hard outer shell can pass through the digestive system intact. Ground flaxseed also works as an egg substitute in vegan baking — mixed with water, it forms a gel that helps bind ingredients.

Vegetable oil extracted from flaxseeds, including cold-pressed and specialized culinary preparations.

The Flor de Mayo bean, a traditional Mexican variety, represented here by its mature seeds and dry form.

Florida pompano is one of the most highly regarded eating fish in the world, known for its firm, white flesh and distinctively rich, buttery taste. It has a fine, flaky texture and a clean ocean flavour that needs very little embellishment.

Pompano is excellent pan-fried, grilled, or baked whole. It’s a staple of Gulf Coast American cooking, often served simply with butter and lemon, but it takes well to Asian-style preparations with ginger and soy, or wrapped in paperbark or banana leaves. The fillets are relatively small but thick and meaty, with very few pin bones.

Flounder.

Flying Fish.

Fonio.

Fortified wine is made by adding a neutral grape spirit to wine during or after fermentation, raising the alcohol content and often preserving natural sweetness. Port is the best-known style, though the category also includes sherry, Madeira, and Marsala.

Fortified wines range from dry to intensely sweet, and from light amber to deep ruby or tawny. Port-style wines are typically rich and full-bodied, with flavours of dried fruit, chocolate, caramel, and spice. They’re traditionally served after dinner, often alongside cheese, chocolate, or nuts.

Foxtail Millet.

French beans are the immature pods of Phaseolus vulgaris, picked before the seeds inside fully develop. They’re one of the most widely eaten vegetables globally, appearing in cuisines from Southeast Asia to southern France.

Originally domesticated in Central and South America thousands of years ago, French beans spread worldwide after European contact. Unlike dried beans, which are grown for their mature seeds, French beans are valued for their tender, edible pods. They come in many varieties — flat, round, yellow (butter beans), and purple — though the slim green round variety is most commonly sold as “French beans” in Australia.

French bean seeds — also known as haricot beans or navy beans depending on the variety — are the fully mature, dried seeds of the common bean plant. They have a mild, creamy flavour and a smooth texture when cooked, making them one of the most adaptable pulses in the kitchen.

These beans are a foundation ingredient in dishes like cassoulet, minestrone, and baked beans. They hold their shape well in slow-cooked dishes and absorb surrounding flavours readily. They can also be puréed into dips or blended into soups for body.

French Sorrel.

Anchovy.

Angelica.

Apple Mint.

Covers various forms of fresh basil plants and leaves used as culinary herbs.

Bay Laurel.

Borage.

Young, green broad beans harvested before maturity and consumed fresh or lightly cooked.

Caper.

The primary group for whole, raw cucumber varieties including common, English, Lebanese, and Kirby forms.

The primary archetype for raw, whole figs including common culinary varieties.

Garlic Chives.

Fresh ginger is one of the most important flavouring ingredients in the world, bringing a distinctive warm, sharp, slightly sweet heat to both savoury and sweet dishes. Its flavour is cleaner and more vibrant than dried or powdered ginger, with bright citrusy notes alongside the characteristic spicy warmth.

Ginger is indispensable in Asian cooking — from stir-fries and curries to soups and marinades. It’s equally at home in baking (gingerbread, biscuits), drinks (ginger tea, ginger beer), and preserves. A knob of fresh ginger, grated or finely sliced, transforms a simple dish.

Goji Berry.

Guava is a highly aromatic tropical fruit with a distinctive, intense fragrance that can perfume an entire room. The flesh ranges from white to salmon pink to deep red depending on the variety, and the flavour is a unique combination of sweet, tart, and musky — unlike any other fruit.

Guavas can be eaten fresh, skin and all, though some prefer to scoop out the seedy centre. They’re excellent in smoothies, juices, jams, and desserts. In Latin American and Southeast Asian cuisines, guava paste and guava jelly are important pantry staples. The fruit also pairs surprisingly well with cheese and chilli.

Limes are the go-to citrus when you need bright, sharp acidity and a clean, fragrant punch. Their juice is more tart and less sweet than lemon, with a distinctive floral quality that makes them essential in Thai, Vietnamese, Mexican, and Indian cooking.

The most common variety in Australian supermarkets is the Tahitian lime (also called Persian lime), which is seedless and relatively mild. Australian native finger limes — with their caviar-like pearls of juice — are a unique local alternative gaining popularity in restaurants and specialty food shops.

Mangoes are the quintessential Australian summer fruit. When the trays of Kensington Pride (Bowen) mangoes start appearing in shops around November, it’s an unofficial signal that summer has arrived. The flesh is rich, sweet, and deeply fragrant, with a smooth, almost buttery texture that makes it one of the world’s most beloved fruits.

Australian mango varieties include Kensington Pride (the classic, with a rich, complex flavour), Calypso (firm and fibreless), R2E2 (large with mild, sweet flesh), and Honey Gold (intensely sweet). Each has its own character, and mango lovers often have strong variety preferences.

Raw papaya fruit in various states of preparation, including regional varieties like pawpaw.

Fresh parsley is one of the most widely used herbs in Australian cooking, valued for its fresh, slightly peppery flavour and vibrant green colour. The two main types are flat-leaf (Italian) parsley, which has a stronger flavour and is preferred for cooking, and curly parsley, which is milder and traditionally used as a garnish.

Far more than a decorative sprig on the side of a plate, parsley is a genuine flavour ingredient. It’s essential in tabbouleh, chimichurri, gremolata, and salsa verde. It lifts pasta dishes, grain salads, soups, and stews, and pairs naturally with lemon, garlic, and olive oil. Flat-leaf parsley in particular can be used in generous handfuls, almost like a salad leaf.

Yellow peaches are a highlight of the Australian summer fruit season, prized for their juicy, sweet flesh and heady fragrance. When perfectly ripe, they’re soft and yielding with a rich, honeyed sweetness balanced by gentle acidity. The golden-yellow flesh surrounds a hard stone at the centre.

Peaches are grown across temperate Australia, with major production areas in Victoria’s Goulburn Valley, South Australia’s Riverland, and parts of New South Wales and Queensland. The season runs from around November through to March, with different varieties ripening in succession.

Pears are one of the most widely enjoyed fruits in Australia, available in a range of varieties including Williams, Packham, Beurre Bosc, and Corella. Each variety has its own character — from the buttery smoothness of a ripe Bosc to the crisp bite of a Packham.

They’re versatile in the kitchen, equally at home eaten fresh, poached in wine or syrup, baked into tarts, or sliced into salads with blue cheese and walnuts. Pears pair naturally with warm spices like cinnamon and star anise.

Pineapple is a tropical fruit with bold, sweet-tart flavour and juicy golden flesh. It’s one of the few fruits that contains bromelain, an enzyme that breaks down proteins — which is why it can make your mouth tingle and why it works so well as a meat tenderiser in marinades.

Fresh pineapple is used across a wide range of dishes, from fruit salads and smoothies to stir-fries, salsas, and grilled skewers. It’s a staple in Southeast Asian and Pacific Island cuisines, and a classic pizza topping — divisive as that may be.

Sweet cherries are one of summer’s most anticipated fruits in Australia, with a short season running from late November through to February. Popular varieties include Bing, Lapin, and Sweetheart, all prized for their firm flesh and balanced sweetness.

They’re mostly eaten fresh by the handful, but also find their way into baking — clafoutis, pies, and chocolate desserts all benefit from their deep flavour. Cherries also work well in savoury contexts, paired with duck or used in chutneys.

Sweet corn is a staple summer vegetable in Australia, distinct from field corn in that it’s bred for high sugar content and tender kernels. It’s picked at an immature stage when the kernels are plump, juicy, and sweet rather than starchy.

Corn on the cob is a barbecue classic — charred over coals and slathered with butter. Off the cob, kernels turn up in fritters, salads, soups, and salsas. It’s also a go-to addition to fried rice and is beloved by kids in lunchboxes.

Groups general freshwater bass flesh with specific raw and dry-heat cooked mixed-species forms.

Freshwater drum is a wild-caught freshwater fish known for its firm, slightly coarse flesh and mild flavour. While more commonly eaten in North America than Australia, it appears in imported and specialty fish markets.

The firm texture holds up well to grilling, baking, and frying. It can be prepared similarly to other mild white fish — crumbed and pan-fried, baked with a herb crust, or used in fish cakes and chowders. The flesh benefits from bold seasonings and sauces, as its own flavour is understated.

Freshwater Eel.

Fresno Pepper.

Fried abalone is a prized preparation of one of Australia’s most valued shellfish. The abalone’s muscular foot is sliced, tenderised, and pan-fried or deep-fried until golden on the outside and tender within. It has a rich, buttery flavour with a satisfying chew.

Abalone is considered a delicacy in many cuisines, particularly Chinese and Japanese cooking, where it holds cultural significance as a luxury ingredient. In Australia, it’s often simply pan-fried with butter and garlic, letting the natural flavour shine.

Fried calamari is one of Australia’s most popular seafood dishes, found on pub menus, fish and chip shops, and restaurant appetiser lists right across the country. The squid is typically cut into rings, coated in seasoned flour or light batter, and fried quickly at high heat for a crisp exterior and tender interior.

Getting the texture right is the key — overcooking turns calamari rubbery, while properly fried pieces stay tender with a satisfying crunch. It’s commonly served with lemon wedges and aioli, tartare sauce, or sweet chilli sauce.

Frogs have been eaten by humans for thousands of years, with the practice most closely associated with French and Southeast Asian cuisines. The edible portion is almost exclusively the hind legs, which carry the most meat on the animal. The flavour is delicate and mild, often described as a cross between chicken and fish.

Several species are used for food, including the American bullfrog, the Indonesian Javan frog, and various European species. Indonesia is the world’s largest exporter of frog legs, followed by China and Vietnam. France remains the largest importer, though demand exists across Europe, the United States, and parts of Asia.

Consolidates general frog leg entries and their raw preparations into a single culinary archetype.

Vanilla frosting dry mix is a convenient baking product that provides a quick base for icing cakes, cupcakes, and biscuits. The mix typically needs only butter and milk (or water) to produce a smooth, spreadable frosting with a classic vanilla flavour.

It’s a time-saver for home bakers who want consistent results without measuring out icing sugar, vanilla, and other components from scratch. The finished frosting can be used as-is for a simple coating, or thinned down to create a pourable glaze.

Ready-to-eat vanilla frosting is the ultimate convenience product for cake decorating — open the tub and spread. It has a smooth, creamy texture and sweet vanilla flavour, designed to go straight onto cakes, cupcakes, and biscuits without any mixing or preparation.

While scratch-made buttercream will always have its place, tub frosting fills a practical gap for busy home bakers, school fête contributions, and quick decorating jobs. It can also be used as a filling between cake layers or piped through a bag for simple decorations.

Frozen butternut pumpkin (known as butternut squash in some markets) offers the sweet, nutty flavour of fresh butternut without the effort of peeling and cutting through its tough skin. The pumpkin is typically sold in cubed or diced pieces, ready to cook from frozen.

It’s a versatile pantry staple that works in soups, curries, risottos, pasta sauces, and roast vegetable trays. Frozen butternut can go straight into a hot oven or simmering pot — no thawing required. The flavour and texture are comparable to fresh once cooked.

Non-dairy frozen treats made from fruit juice, puree, or fruit flavorings.

Frozen green beans are a kitchen staple — affordable, nutritious, and available in every supermarket freezer section. They’re picked and frozen at peak freshness, which locks in their bright colour and crisp-tender texture better than beans that have spent days in transit.

They cook quickly from frozen — a few minutes in boiling water, a stint in the microwave, or tossed straight into a stir-fry or casserole. They’re a reliable side dish steamed with a knob of butter, or tossed through a warm salad with almonds and lemon.

Frozen kale is a convenient way to keep this nutrient-dense leafy green on hand without worrying about it wilting in the fridge. The leaves are blanched and frozen shortly after harvest, making them ready to drop straight into soups, stews, smoothies, and pasta dishes.

While frozen kale loses the crunch needed for raw salads, it’s ideal for any cooked application. It breaks down quickly in hot dishes, adding earthy, slightly bitter green flavour to everything from minestrone to shakshuka. It’s also a popular addition to green smoothies.

Frozen sweetened peach slices are a handy pantry staple that capture the flavour of ripe peaches year-round. They work well in smoothies, baked goods like cobblers and crumbles, or simply thawed and served with yoghurt or ice cream.

Because they’re picked and processed at peak ripeness, frozen peaches often have a more consistent flavour than out-of-season fresh fruit. The added sweetener means they’re ready to use in desserts without much extra sugar.

Frozen pineapple takes the hassle out of preparing fresh pineapple — no peeling, coring, or sticky benchtops. The chunks are versatile enough for smoothies, stir-fries, curries, or tropical desserts.

Pineapple freezes well, retaining much of its bright, tangy-sweet flavour. It’s particularly popular as a smoothie ingredient since the frozen pieces double as ice, creating a thick, cold blend without dilution.

Frozen sour cherries — sometimes called tart or morello cherries — have a sharp, tangy flavour that makes them ideal for baking. They’re the classic choice for cherry pies, strudels, and clafoutis, where their acidity balances the sweetness of pastry and sugar.

Because they’re unsweetened, you have full control over how much sugar goes into your dish. They also work well in savoury contexts, adding a fruity tartness to sauces for duck, pork, or game.

Frozen spinach is one of the most practical items in the freezer. Available as chopped blocks or whole leaves, it’s ready to drop straight into soups, curries, pasta sauces, pies, and egg dishes without any washing or wilting.

It’s often more economical than fresh spinach, and because it’s blanched before freezing, it has a soft, cooked texture straight from the packet. A block of frozen spinach is the backbone of spanakopita, saag paneer, and creamed spinach alike.

Frozen sweet cherries offer the deep, rich flavour of fresh cherries without the brief seasonal window. They’re ready to eat straight from the bag once slightly thawed, or can be used in smoothies, baking, compotes, and chocolate desserts.

Sweet cherries have a jammy, almost wine-like depth when frozen and thawed, which makes them particularly good in sauces, tarts, and as a topping for porridge, pavlova, or cheesecake.

Frozen corn kernels are a kitchen workhorse — quick to cook, naturally sweet, and endlessly versatile. They go into fritters, fried rice, soups, salads, pasta dishes, and Mexican-inspired meals with equal ease.

Because the kernels are stripped from the cob and frozen shortly after harvest, they tend to be sweeter and more consistent than fresh cobs that have sat on the shelf for days. They cook in minutes, whether boiled, microwaved, or tossed straight into a hot pan.

Frozen wax beans — the pale yellow cousin of green beans — have a mild, slightly buttery flavour and a tender-crisp texture when cooked. They’re interchangeable with green beans in most recipes and add a splash of colour to mixed vegetable dishes.

They’re excellent steamed or sautéed as a side, tossed into casseroles, or added to soups and stews. Their delicate flavour pairs well with butter, garlic, almonds, and lemon.

This is a generic category covering fruit that doesn’t fall under a more specific type. Fruit — in the culinary sense — refers to the sweet or tart fleshy structures that plants develop around their seeds to encourage dispersal by animals, including humans.

Fruits are one of the oldest human foods, gathered long before agriculture began. Today they form a major part of global food production, grown on every inhabited continent in climates ranging from tropical to temperate. The category is enormously diverse, spanning berries, stone fruits, citrus, tropical fruits, and many others.

This baby food combines the natural sweetness of apple with the creamy mildness of sweet potato, making it an approachable early food for infants. The smooth puree texture is suitable for babies being introduced to solid foods.

Fruit and vegetable combinations like this are a common way to introduce a range of flavours early on. The apple adds brightness while the sweet potato provides body and a naturally smooth consistency.

Fruit cocktail is a classic tinned product containing a colourful mix of diced fruits — typically peach, pineapple, pear, grape halves, and cherry pieces — packed in fruit juice rather than heavy syrup. It’s a convenient way to have a variety of fruits on hand without buying each one fresh.

It’s a nostalgic staple in Australian kitchens, often served with custard or ice cream, folded into jelly, or used in trifles and fruit salads. The juice-pack variety is a lighter option than syrup-packed versions.

Fruit cordial is a concentrated syrup made from fruit juice or flavourings, sugar, and water. You mix a small amount with cold water — or soda water for a fizzy version — to make a refreshing drink. It’s a fixture in Australian households, especially for kids.

Cordial comes in a wide range of fruit flavours, from lemon and orange to tropical blends. It’s economical and long-lasting, and the concentration can be adjusted to taste. Some varieties are made with real fruit juice, while others rely on flavourings.

Core technical categories for whole fruit, extracted juices, and concentrated fruit syrups.

Fruit-flavoured drinks sit at the lighter end of the juice spectrum — they carry fruit flavour but contain very little actual juice. They’re typically sweetened with sugar or artificial sweeteners and are designed as a refreshing, affordable soft drink alternative.

These products are common in the chilled drinks aisle and are quite different from fruit juice or even fruit juice drinks, which contain significantly more real juice. The flavour comes primarily from added flavourings rather than from the fruit itself.

Jam is made by cooking fruit with sugar until it reaches a gel-like set, creating a sweet, spreadable preserve. It’s a breakfast and baking staple — spread on toast, spooned onto scones, swirled through yoghurt, or used as a filling in cakes, tarts, and biscuits.

Australia has a strong tradition of home jam-making, particularly with stone fruits and berries in season. Commercial jams range from smooth, evenly set varieties to chunkier conserves and preserves with visible pieces of fruit. The sugar content is what gives jam its long shelf life, acting as a natural preservative.

Ready-to-drink beverages with significant fruit juice content (typically >3%) or marketed specifically as juice drinks, including fortified and branded varieties.

A sweetened fruit-flavored beverage encompassing various commercial forms including canned ready-to-drink options, frozen concentrates, and powdered mixes.

Tropical punch and mixed fruit beverages are ready-to-drink products that combine juices from fruits like mango, pineapple, guava, passionfruit, and orange into a single sweet, refreshing drink. They’re designed for convenience — grab from the fridge and go.

These drinks are a common sight in Australian supermarket chiller sections and lunch boxes. They range from budget juice drinks with minimal fruit content to premium blends marketed on their tropical fruit credentials. The flavour profile leans sweet and aromatic, evoking warm-weather fruits.

Canned fruit salad is a pantry staple that brings together several types of diced or sliced fruit — typically peaches, pears, pineapple, grapes, and cherries — packed in fruit juice rather than syrup. The fruit juice packing medium gives it a lighter, less cloying sweetness than the syrup-packed alternatives.

It’s a reliable standby in Australian kitchens, turning up in school lunch boxes, as a quick dessert with ice cream or custard, and as an ingredient in trifles, jellies, and fruit flans. The convenience factor is hard to beat — shelf-stable, pre-cut, and ready to eat straight from the tin.

Fruit smoothies are blended beverages that combine whole fruit purées with fruit juices to create a thick, drinkable product with more body and texture than straight juice. Common combinations include strawberry and banana, mango and passionfruit, and mixed berry blends.

Smoothies have become a fixture of Australian café culture and are widely available as bottled ready-to-drink products in supermarkets and convenience stores. They’re positioned as a more substantial alternative to juice — something closer to a snack than a drink — and are popular as breakfast on the go or a post-exercise pick-me-up.

Fruit leather and fruit snack pieces are made by spreading puréed fruit into thin layers and slowly drying them until they form a pliable, chewy sheet, which is then cut into strips or bite-sized pieces. The result is an intensely flavoured, portable snack with a concentrated fruity sweetness.

These snacks are a lunchbox favourite in Australia, popular with kids and adults alike as a convenient, relatively simple alternative to confectionery. They come in a wide range of fruit flavours, from apple and strawberry to more adventurous tropical blends.

Fruity chewy candy encompasses a family of soft, individually wrapped confections with intense fruit flavours and a taffy-like chew. Brands like Starburst are the archetype — small, square, brightly coloured pieces that soften in the mouth and deliver a burst of strawberry, orange, lemon, or other fruit flavouring.

These sweets are a mainstay of the confectionery aisle and a perennial favourite at cinema candy bars and corner shops across Australia. They occupy the middle ground between hard-boiled lollies and gummy sweets, offering a satisfying chew without being sticky enough to cause dental anxiety.

Fusarium venenatum is a species of filamentous fungus originally isolated from a soil sample in Buckinghamshire, England, in the 1960s. It was identified during a systematic search for microorganisms that could be grown as a protein source for human food — a project driven by concerns about future global protein shortages.

The fungus produces dense mats of mycelium (thread-like fungal fibres) that have a naturally meat-like texture when processed. This mycelium is the basis of mycoprotein, sold commercially under the Quorn brand since the 1980s. The fibrous structure of the mycelium gives it a texture closer to meat than most plant-based protein alternatives.

Galangal.

Garden cress is a delicate, fine-leaved herb with a sharp, peppery bite similar to watercress or rocket. Its tiny leaves and slender stems are typically eaten raw, adding a lively kick to sandwiches, salads, and garnishes. It’s one of the fastest-growing edible plants around, sprouting within days of sowing.

In Australia, garden cress is most commonly encountered as the classic “egg and cress” sandwich filling or as a microgreen garnish at restaurants. It’s also a popular choice for growing on windowsills and in children’s gardening projects, thanks to its almost foolproof germination.

The garden snail (Cornu aspersum, formerly Helix aspersa) is a terrestrial mollusc native to the Mediterranean region but now found worldwide — including extensively in Australia, where it’s considered an agricultural pest. Ironically, the same species that damages crops and gardens is also a valued food item with a long culinary history.

Snails have been eaten by humans since prehistoric times. They remain a staple in French cuisine (as escargot), are popular across the Mediterranean, and are eaten in parts of Africa and Asia. The flavour of the snail itself is mild and slightly earthy — much of the taste in classic preparations comes from the garlic and herb butter they’re cooked in.

Garden vegetable soup is a straightforward, comforting soup that combines a variety of common vegetables — typically tomatoes, carrots, potatoes, celery, beans, and peas — in a seasoned broth. The canned version offers a convenient, shelf-stable meal that just needs heating.

It’s one of those dependable pantry items that gets reached for on cold days, sick days, and days when cooking feels like too much effort. In Australia, canned vegetable soup is a lunchtime staple, often paired with toast or a crusty bread roll.

Garland chrysanthemum, known as shungiku in Japanese and tong ho in Cantonese, is a leafy green vegetable prized in East Asian cuisines for its distinctive herbal aroma and pleasantly bitter edge. The serrated leaves and tender stems are eaten both raw and cooked.

In Australia, garland chrysanthemum is readily available at Asian grocers and is increasingly stocked by farmers’ market growers. It’s a key ingredient in Japanese hot pot (nabe) and sukiyaki, where it’s added in the final minutes of cooking to wilt gently in the broth. It also turns up in stir-fries, salads, and as a garnish for soups.

Garlic is one of the most widely used flavouring ingredients on earth, and for good reason — its sharp, pungent raw bite mellows into a deep, sweet savouriness when cooked. A single bulb, broken into its individual cloves and crushed, sliced, or minced, can transform almost any savoury dish.

In Australian cooking, garlic is essentially non-negotiable. It’s the starting point for countless recipes across every cuisine represented in the country’s multicultural food landscape — from Italian pasta sauces and Greek lamb to Thai stir-fries and Indian curries. Australian-grown garlic, particularly from regions like the Adelaide Hills and northern Tasmania, is highly regarded for its intensity.

Dehydrated and granulated garlic preparations used as shelf-stable seasonings.

Gemfish (Rexea solandri) is a deepwater species found in the temperate waters of southeastern Australia and New Zealand. It’s a sleek, elongated fish that lives at depths of 100 to 800 metres, feeding on squid and smaller fish. Two distinct populations exist in Australian waters — an eastern stock and a western stock.

Gemfish was once one of Australia’s most popular and commercially important fish species. Its flesh is rich, buttery, and full-flavoured, making it excellent for grilling, baking, and smoking. However, the eastern stock was severely overfished in the 1980s and 1990s, leading to a dramatic population collapse and strict fishing restrictions that remain in place.

Gemfish is a deep-water species found in the waters off southern and eastern Australia. Its firm, white flesh has a clean, mild flavour with a slightly oily richness that keeps it moist during cooking. It was once one of Australia’s most popular table fish before overfishing led to strict catch limits in the 1990s.

Today, gemfish is less common than it once was, but it still appears at quality fishmongers and seafood restaurants, particularly in New South Wales. The firm texture holds up well to grilling, pan-frying, and baking, and it’s excellent in fish curries and chowders. Older Australians often remember it fondly as a fish and chip shop staple.

General lettuce products, salad mixes, and non-specific leaf references.

Geoduck.

Ghost Pepper.

Giant Pacific Octopus.

Giant Puffball.

Giant Taro.

Ginger (Zingiber officinale) is a tropical flowering plant whose knobbly underground rhizome is one of the world’s most widely used spices. It has a distinctive warm, sharp, slightly sweet flavour that works across sweet and savoury dishes, beverages, and confectionery.

Originating in Southeast Asia, ginger has been traded and cultivated for thousands of years. It was one of the first spices to reach Europe via ancient trade routes and was so valued in medieval times that it was used as currency. Today, India is the world’s largest producer, followed by Nigeria and China.

Ginger ale and ginger beer are both carbonated beverages built around the flavour of ginger, but they differ in intensity and character. Ginger ale is typically lighter, drier, and more subtle — a popular mixer for spirits and a classic remedy for an upset stomach. Ginger beer has a stronger, spicier ginger punch and is often slightly sweeter, making it the base of drinks like the Moscow Mule and Dark ’n’ Stormy.

Ginkgo seeds come from the ginkgo tree (Ginkgo biloba), one of the oldest living tree species on Earth — often called a “living fossil” because it has remained virtually unchanged for over 200 million years. While the tree is widely planted as an ornamental worldwide, its seeds are primarily eaten in China, Japan, and Korea.

The edible part is the kernel inside the hard shell, which itself sits inside a fleshy outer coating. This outer layer is notoriously unpleasant — it smells strongly of rancid butter due to butyric acid — which is why cities that plant ginkgo trees as street trees generally prefer male trees that don’t produce fruit. The kernel, once extracted and cooked, has a mild, slightly sweet, starchy flavour and a soft, slightly chewy texture.

Ginkgo nuts are the inner seeds of the fruit produced by the ginkgo tree, one of the oldest living tree species on Earth. The nuts have a firm, slightly chewy texture and a mild, starchy flavour with a faint bitterness. They are a staple ingredient in East Asian cooking, particularly in Chinese, Japanese, and Korean cuisines.

In Japanese cuisine, ginkgo nuts appear in chawanmushi (savoury egg custard) and are sometimes skewered and grilled as a snack with salt. In Chinese cooking, they feature in congee, stir-fries, and dessert soups. Their pale green-yellow colour makes them visually distinctive.

Globe artichokes are the immature flower heads of a large thistle plant, prized for the tender heart at their centre and the fleshy bases of the outer leaves (or bracts). They have a mild, slightly nutty flavour that pairs well with butter, lemon, garlic, and olive oil.

Popular across Mediterranean cuisines, artichokes are enjoyed steamed, boiled, grilled, stuffed, or braised. In Australia, they’re often simply boiled whole and eaten leaf by leaf — pulling each one through your teeth to scrape off the soft flesh — before reaching the prized heart. Artichoke hearts are also widely used in dips, pasta dishes, pizzas, and antipasto platters.

Gluten-free bakery products are designed for people with coeliac disease, gluten intolerance, or those who choose to avoid gluten. These products replace wheat flour with alternatives such as rice flour, tapioca starch, potato starch, and various gum-based binders to approximate the texture of conventional baked goods.

The range of gluten-free bakery items available in Australia has expanded enormously, covering sliced bread, rolls, wraps, pizza bases, muffins, and pastries. While earlier products had a reputation for being dry and crumbly, modern formulations have improved significantly in taste and texture.

Gluten-free sandwich cookies are a sweet treat designed for those avoiding gluten, featuring two crisp biscuits sandwiching a vanilla cream filling. They aim to replicate the familiar texture and taste of classic sandwich biscuits like a cream-filled cookie, using alternative flour blends in place of wheat.

These products cater to the growing demand for gluten-free options that don’t compromise on indulgence. While they are made without wheat, they are still a processed sweet biscuit and are typically enjoyed as an occasional treat rather than an everyday food.

Glutinous Rice.

The domestic goat is one of the oldest domesticated animals, first kept in western Asia around 10,000 years ago. Goats are raised on every continent and are central to food systems across Africa, the Middle East, South Asia, and the Caribbean.

Goat meat — sometimes called chevon or cabrito — is lean, with a distinctive flavour that is stronger than lamb but milder than mutton. It is a dietary staple for much of the world’s population, though it remains a niche product in Australia compared to beef and lamb. Goat milk is also widely consumed, often made into cheese, yoghurt, and other dairy products.

Goat and sheep dairy products offer an alternative to cow’s milk dairy, with distinctive flavours that range from mild and slightly sweet (fresh goat’s milk) to rich and tangy (aged sheep’s cheese). These products include fresh milk, yoghurt, soft and hard cheeses, and cultured products like kefir.

Goat’s milk is often described as having a cleaner, slightly ‘goaty’ flavour compared to cow’s milk. It is naturally homogenised due to smaller fat globules, giving it a smooth consistency. Some people who experience discomfort with cow’s milk find goat’s milk easier to digest, though it still contains lactose. Sheep’s milk is richer and higher in fat, making it ideal for cheese-making — feta and pecorino are classic examples.

Lean meat from goats (chevon) and young goats (kid), including various primal cuts.

In many parts of the world — particularly the Mediterranean, Middle East, and Central Asia — goats and sheep are herded together, and their milk is mixed rather than separated. This combined milk has been used for centuries to make traditional cheeses such as feta, which can legally be made from sheep’s milk or a blend of sheep and goat milk.

Goat milk is slightly lower in fat than sheep milk but both differ from cow’s milk in fat globule structure and protein composition, which affects how they behave in cheesemaking and digestion. Sheep milk is richer and yields more cheese per litre.

The canonical gold kiwifruit, encompassing raw preparations and specific commercial cultivars like SunGold.

Golden Chanterelle.

Golden Perch.

Golden zucchini is a vibrant yellow-skinned variety of the common zucchini (courgette), with the same versatile, mild flavour and tender texture. It can be used interchangeably with green zucchini in any recipe, but its sunny colour adds visual interest to dishes — particularly when the two varieties are combined.

Like its green counterpart, golden zucchini is at its best when young and small to medium in size, before the seeds become large and the flesh turns watery. It’s excellent sliced and grilled on the barbecue, spiralised into ‘zoodles,’ sautéed with garlic and olive oil, or baked into fritters and slices. It’s also a reliable addition to ratatouille, pasta dishes, and vegetable bakes.

Good King Henry.

The domestic goose is descended from the wild greylag goose and was one of the first poultry species to be domesticated, likely in Egypt or Southeast Asia several thousand years ago. Geese are raised primarily for their meat, which is darker and richer than duck or chicken, with a thick layer of subcutaneous fat.

Goose fat is highly regarded in European cooking for roasting potatoes and frying. Goose liver, when fattened, is the basis of foie gras — a product that is controversial due to the force-feeding methods traditionally used. Goose eggs are larger than chicken eggs with a richer yolk, though they are uncommon in commercial production.

Goose Barnacle.

Gooseberry.

Grains are the edible seeds of grasses in the family Poaceae. They include wheat, rice, corn (maize), barley, oats, rye, millet, and sorghum, among others. Together, these crops provide the majority of the world’s dietary energy and are the foundation of staple foods like bread, pasta, noodles, and tortillas.

Humans began cultivating grains around 10,000 years ago in the Fertile Crescent, and grain agriculture has shaped civilisation ever since. Grains are storable, transportable, and calorie-dense, which made them the basis of trade and settlement.

General grain components and processed grain-based snacks.

Grains Of Paradise.

Grains Of Selim.

Toasted grain mixtures and snack bars featuring oats, nuts, and dried fruits.

Grapes are the fruit of vines in the genus Vitis, with the European grape (Vitis vinifera) being the most widely cultivated species. They have been grown for at least 6,000 years and are one of the world’s most economically important fruit crops, largely because of the wine industry.

Grapes are broadly divided into table grapes (eaten fresh), wine grapes (pressed and fermented), and drying grapes (dried to make raisins, sultanas, and currants). There are thousands of named varieties, ranging from sweet, seedless table grapes to tannic, thick-skinned wine varieties.

Non-alcoholic grape-based beverages, from pure unsweetened juices to grape-flavored sodas and drinks.

The foliage of the grapevine, commonly used in Mediterranean and Middle Eastern cooking as a wrapper for fillings.

Grapefruit.

A culinary oil extracted from the seeds of grapes, valued for its neutral flavor and high smoke point.

Grass Carp.

Grass Pea.

Grayling.

Consolidates general flesh and specific regional raw preparations of the Great Horned Owl.

A large, white, mild-flavored variety of the common bean, encompassing all raw, dried, canned, and cooked culinary forms.

Green beans are the immature pods of varieties of the common bean (Phaseolus vulgaris) bred to be eaten whole — pod and all — rather than shelled for their seeds. They are one of the most widely consumed vegetables in the world, available fresh, frozen, and canned.

Modern green bean varieties are “stringless” — the tough fibre that once ran along the pod seam has been bred out. They come in bush and climbing forms, and in colours from green to yellow (butter beans) to purple. The flavour is mild and grassy, and they cook quickly.

Green beans — also called string beans or French beans — are one of the most familiar vegetables in the Australian kitchen. Unlike dried beans, they are harvested young while the pods are still tender and the seeds inside are small and undeveloped. The whole pod is eaten.

They are enormously versatile: steamed and buttered as a simple side, blanched and tossed into salads, stir-fried with garlic and soy, or slow-cooked in casseroles. They pair well with almonds, bacon, lemon, and most herbs. The French tradition of serving them barely cooked and bright green (haricots verts) sits alongside heartier preparations like American-style green bean casserole.

Fresh green and white cabbage varieties, including whole heads and leaves in their raw state.

Green Cardamom.

Groups the standard green-fleshed kiwifruit varieties, including specific cultivars like Hayward and various raw preparations.

Loose-leaf lettuce with tender, ruffled green leaves.

Green Lentil.

Green peas are one of the most universally liked vegetables — sweet, bright, and cheerful in colour. Technically a legume, they are treated as a vegetable in the kitchen, appearing as a side dish, stirred through pasta and risotto, blended into soups, or scattered over salads.

Fresh peas in the pod are a seasonal treat in spring and early summer, but for most of the year, frozen peas are the practical choice — and an excellent one, since they are snap-frozen within hours of harvest and retain their sweetness and colour remarkably well. Tinned peas, while convenient, tend to be softer and less vibrant.

Green pinto beans are pinto beans picked at the shelling stage — after the seeds have formed but before they have dried on the vine. They sit in the middle ground between fresh green beans (eaten pod and all) and the familiar dried pintos used in Mexican refried beans.

At this immature stage, the beans are softer and cook much faster than their dried counterparts. They have a creamy, delicate flavour without the dense, starchy character of fully mature pintos. They are sometimes called “shelling beans” or “fresh pintos.”

Green sea turtle meat is a dense, dark-fleshed protein with a distinctive marine flavour that sits somewhere between beef and fish. It has been consumed for centuries across the Pacific, Southeast Asia, and the Caribbean, where it featured in traditional feasts and colonial-era turtle soup.

In Australia, green sea turtles are a protected species and their harvest is restricted to Indigenous communities exercising traditional hunting rights. The meat holds deep cultural significance for many First Nations peoples of northern Australia and the Torres Strait Islands, where it remains part of customary diet and ceremony.

Green tea is one of the oldest prepared beverages in the world, originating in China several thousand years ago. Unlike black tea, the leaves are heated shortly after picking — either steamed (as in Japanese styles) or pan-fired (as in Chinese styles) — to halt oxidation, preserving the leaf’s natural green colour and delicate, vegetal flavour.

The taste varies widely depending on origin and processing. Chinese green teas like longjing (dragon well) tend to be nutty and mellow, while Japanese varieties like sencha are more intensely grassy and sometimes marine. All are typically brewed at lower temperatures than black tea, around 70–80°C, to avoid bitterness.

The green-lipped mussel (Perna canaliculus) is a bivalve mollusc endemic to New Zealand, where it is known by its Māori name, kūtai. It is the country’s largest mussel species, growing up to 24 centimetres, and is named for the green band that runs along the lip of its shell.

Green-lipped mussels have plump, tender meat with a mild, sweet flavour. They are a major New Zealand export product, sold fresh, frozen (typically on the half-shell), and as a dried powder marketed as a joint-health supplement.

Greengage.

Greenland halibut (Reinhardtius hippoglossoides) is a deep-water flatfish found in the cold waters of the North Atlantic and Arctic oceans. Despite its name, it is not a true halibut but a related species sometimes marketed as Greenland turbot or black halibut. Its flesh is noticeably fattier than Pacific or Atlantic halibut, giving it a rich, buttery quality.

The high oil content makes Greenland halibut excellent for smoking, and it is widely consumed smoked in Scandinavian and Japanese cuisines. When cooked fresh, the flesh is white to off-white, soft-textured, and holds together well when baked, grilled, or pan-fried.

Grey mullet refers to several species in the family Mugilidae, most commonly the flathead grey mullet (Mugil cephalus). They are found in coastal, estuarine, and sometimes freshwater environments across tropical and temperate regions worldwide.

Grey mullet flesh is firm and moderately oily, with a flavour that varies depending on the water quality where the fish was caught. The roe is the most prized product — dried, salted grey mullet roe is known as bottarga in Italian cuisine, karasumi in Japanese, and avgotaraho in Greek. It is grated or sliced thinly and served as a concentrated, umami-rich delicacy.

Cayenne Pepper.

Minced and ground chicken products in various fat concentrations.

Espelette Pepper.

Ground ginger is made from dried ginger rhizome, milled to a fine powder. It has a warm, sharp, slightly sweet flavour that is more concentrated and less bright than fresh ginger, with a dry heat that works differently in recipes.

It is a cornerstone spice in baking — essential for gingerbread, gingernut biscuits, and spice cakes — and features prominently in spice blends like garam masala, curry powder, and Chinese five-spice. In savoury cooking, it adds warmth to marinades, stir-fries, and soups, though it is not a direct substitute for fresh ginger, as the drying process changes its flavour profile significantly.

Minced or ground lamb meat used for burgers, koftas, and sauces.

Pork mince is ground from various cuts of pig, often shoulder or leg, with a proportion of fat that gives it a moist, slightly sweet character distinct from beef or chicken mince. It has a mild flavour that works as a base for a wide range of seasonings and preparations.

It is essential in many cuisines — from Chinese dumplings, mapo tofu, and san choy bau to Italian meatballs, bolognese, and sausage-making. In Australian kitchens, pork mince is popular for stir-fries, Asian-inspired noodle dishes, wontons, and spring rolls. It also combines well with other minces for dishes like meatloaf and burger patties.

Turkey mince is ground from a mix of turkey breast and thigh meat, yielding a lean, mild-flavoured mince that has gained popularity as a lighter alternative to beef or pork. Its neutral taste makes it a good carrier for strong seasonings and sauces.

While less traditional in Australian cooking than lamb or beef mince, turkey mince is increasingly used in health-conscious versions of classics — bolognese, tacos, burgers, meatballs, and chilli. It works particularly well in spiced dishes where the seasoning does the heavy lifting, as the meat itself is quite subtle.

Minced and ground deer meat suitable for burgers, sausages, and savory fillings.

Groundnut.

Grouper is a broad family of large, heavy-bodied reef fish found in warm waters worldwide. The flesh is white, firm, and moist with a mild, slightly sweet flavour and large, satisfying flakes. Its sturdy texture holds up well to virtually any cooking method — grilling, steaming, frying, baking, or adding to curries and soups.

In Australia, various grouper species are caught in Queensland and Western Australian waters, and the fish is well known in the cuisines of Southeast Asia, the Caribbean, and the Gulf states. It is a staple of Cantonese steamed fish preparations and appears frequently on the menus of coastal restaurants across northern Australia.

Grouse.

Guar (Cyamopsis tetragonoloba) is an annual legume native to the arid regions of the Indian subcontinent. While it has been grown as a vegetable and animal feed crop for centuries, its global significance today comes almost entirely from guar gum, a galactomannan polysaccharide extracted from the seed endosperm.

Guar gum appears in an enormous range of processed foods — ice cream, sauces, baked goods, dairy products, and gluten-free formulations — where it acts as a thickener, stabiliser, and emulsifier. India produces around 80% of the world’s guar supply. The crop also has significant industrial uses in oil and gas drilling, textiles, and paper manufacturing.

Guarana (Paullinia cupana) is a climbing plant in the maple family, native to the Amazon rainforest. Its seeds contain roughly twice the caffeine concentration of coffee beans, which has made it one of the most commercially important stimulant plants in the world.

In Brazil, guarana-flavoured soft drinks are a cultural staple — Guaraná Antarctica is one of the country’s most popular beverages. Internationally, guarana extract is a key ingredient in energy drinks, supplements, and caffeinated products. The plant has deep roots in Indigenous Amazonian cultures, particularly among the Sateré-Mawé people, who have cultivated and used it for centuries.

This is a sugar-free energy drink formulated with guarana seed extract as its headline ingredient, alongside caffeine, taurine, and added vitamins B6 and B12. It uses artificial sweeteners in place of sugar to deliver the characteristic sweet, slightly medicinal energy drink flavour without the kilojoules.

Guarana-based energy drinks occupy a large and competitive segment of the Australian beverages market. Guarana seeds naturally contain caffeine — roughly twice the concentration found in coffee beans — and the extract is combined with synthetic caffeine and other stimulant-adjacent ingredients to produce the alertness-boosting effect these products are marketed for.

Guava (Psidium guajava) is a small tropical tree in the myrtle family, originally from Central America but now grown throughout the tropics and subtropics worldwide. The fruit has a thin skin, a strongly aromatic flesh, and a centre packed with small hard seeds.

Guava is one of the most important tropical fruits globally, consumed both fresh and processed. In Latin America, guava paste (goiabada) is a beloved confection. Across Southeast Asia and the Pacific, guava is eaten green with salt or chilli as a snack. Guava juice, nectar, and jelly are widely produced commercially. In Australia, guava grows well in Queensland and northern New South Wales, and both common guava and strawberry guava varieties are available.

This is a fruit-based baby food combining guava and papaya, thickened with tapioca starch and strained to a very smooth consistency suitable for young infants. It offers a gentle introduction to tropical fruit flavours.

Guava and papaya are a natural pairing, both being soft, fragrant tropical fruits. The tapioca serves as a mild thickener that gives the purée a slightly more substantial texture without introducing strong flavours or common allergens.

Guava nectar is a thick, aromatic juice drink with a distinctive pink hue and a sweet, tropical fragrance. Unlike clear juices, nectar retains some of the fruit’s pulp, giving it a slightly thicker, more velvety mouthfeel. It is typically sweetened and fortified with ascorbic acid.

Guava nectar is popular across Latin America, Southeast Asia, and the Pacific Islands, and is readily available in Australian supermarkets and Asian grocery stores. It can be enjoyed chilled on its own, used as a base for cocktails and mocktails, or blended into smoothies.

Guava sauce is a simple preparation of guava fruit that has been cooked down and puréed into a smooth, thick sauce. It has an intense tropical flavour — sweet, fragrant, and slightly musky — concentrated by the cooking process.

It can be used much like apple sauce: as a side for roasted meats, stirred through yoghurt or porridge, spooned over ice cream, or used as a base for glazes and dressings. In Latin American and Caribbean cooking, cooked guava preparations are a staple, often paired with cheese.

Guinea Pig.

The Gumboot Chiton (Cryptochiton stelleri), the largest species of chiton, represented here in whole and regional Alaska Native forms.

The habanero (Capsicum chinense) is one of the hottest commonly available chilli peppers, typically rating 100,000 to 350,000 Scoville heat units. Despite its name — which references Havana, Cuba — the habanero likely originated in the Amazon basin and was domesticated in Mexico’s Yucatán Peninsula, where it remains a cornerstone of regional cuisine.

Habaneros are prized not just for their intense heat but for their distinctive fruity, floral flavour, which sets them apart from other hot peppers. They are a key ingredient in Caribbean hot sauces, Yucatecan salsas, and jerk seasonings. The peppers come in a range of colours including orange, red, yellow, white, brown (chocolate habanero), and even purple.

Haddock is a cold-water fish closely related to cod, found in the North Atlantic. It has a slightly sweeter, more delicate flavour than cod, with fine, tender flakes and lean white flesh. A dark blotch on each side behind the gills — sometimes called “St Peter’s thumbprint” — is the easiest way to tell it apart from its relatives.

While haddock is not native to Australian waters, it is available frozen or smoked in many supermarkets and fishmongers. It is perhaps best known as the traditional choice for smoked fish — finnan haddie and smoked haddock are staples of British cooking, used in dishes like kedgeree, cullen skink, and fish pie.

The whole fruit and its primary fresh, raw preparation form.

The half-free morel (Morchella punctipes, formerly M. semilibera) is a species of wild mushroom in the morel family, distinguished by its conical, honeycomb-textured cap that attaches to the stem only at its apex, leaving the lower portion of the cap hanging free. This characteristic gives the species its common name.

Half-free morels are generally considered less desirable than their fully-attached relatives — the black morel and yellow morel — as they tend to be smaller, more fragile, and have a less concentrated flavour. However, they are still edible and sought after by foragers. They typically appear in spring, often slightly earlier than other morel species, in damp deciduous woodlands.

A grouping of halibut fish entries including generic flesh, standard fillets, and common preparations or storage states.

Halite is the mineral name for naturally occurring rock salt (sodium chloride, NaCl). It forms in massive underground deposits left behind by the evaporation of ancient seas and lakes, and is found on every continent. Salt is arguably the most important seasoning in human history — essential for preserving food, enhancing flavour, and maintaining basic biological functions.

As a food product, halite encompasses a wide range of salts including mined rock salt, Himalayan pink salt (from the Khewra Salt Mine in Pakistan), and various regional rock salts. These differ from sea salt primarily in their method of extraction and trace mineral content, which can give them distinctive colours and subtle flavour differences.

Ham is one of the oldest and most universal forms of preserved meat — pork from the hind leg that has been cured with salt, and sometimes smoked, aged, or cooked. In Australia, ham is a fixture of Christmas tables, sandwich shops, and charcuterie boards alike.

The term covers a wide range of products, from the mild, pink sliced ham found in every supermarket deli to bone-in leg hams cured and smoked by artisan producers. Wet-cured (brined) ham tends to be milder and moister, while dry-cured ham has a more concentrated, complex flavour. Smoked varieties add another layer of depth.

Hamburg Parsley.

Hare.

The haricot bean (Phaseolus vulgaris) is a small, white, oval-shaped variety of common bean. It is perhaps best known as the bean in tinned baked beans — one of the most recognisable pantry staples in Australia, the UK, and many other countries. The name “haricot” comes from French, while in the United States they are commonly called navy beans (from their historical role as a staple food in the US Navy).

Haricot beans are small, creamy-white beans with a mild flavour and smooth, slightly starchy texture when cooked. They are the bean behind baked beans — virtually every tin of baked beans in Australia starts with haricots — but they deserve to be known well beyond that tin.

Also called navy beans, these are one of the most versatile pulses in the kitchen. They absorb flavours readily and hold their shape well during long cooking, making them ideal for slow-cooked stews, cassoulet, minestrone, and white bean purées. They are also excellent in salads dressed while still warm.

The hazelnut (Corylus avellana and Corylus maxima) is the fruit of the hazel tree, a deciduous shrub or small tree native to Europe and western Asia. Hazelnuts have been gathered and eaten across Europe since prehistoric times, making them one of the oldest cultivated nut crops.

Today, hazelnuts are most closely associated with chocolate and confectionery — gianduja (chocolate-hazelnut paste), praline, and products like Nutella and Ferrero Rocher drive the majority of global demand. Turkey produces around 70% of the world’s hazelnuts, followed by Italy, the United States (Oregon), and increasingly, Chile, Georgia, and Australia. Beyond confectionery, hazelnuts are used in baking, salads, and as a snack, and are pressed into hazelnut oil and processed into hazelnut milk.

Vegetable oil extracted from hazelnuts used for culinary purposes.

Creamy hazelnut-based spreads, including chocolate-flavored variants.

Hazelnuts are one of the world’s most widely enjoyed tree nuts, prized for their distinctive sweet, buttery flavour and satisfying crunch. They pair naturally with chocolate — a combination immortalised in praline and spreads like Nutella — but are equally at home in savoury dishes, salads, and dukkah.

In the kitchen, hazelnuts benefit enormously from toasting, which deepens their flavour and loosens the papery skin. They can be used whole, roughly chopped, or ground into meal for cakes and biscuits. Hazelnut meal makes a useful gluten-free flour substitute in many baking recipes.

The edible inner core of certain palm trees, available in various processed forms like raw or canned.

Hedgehog Mushroom.

Hemp (Cannabis sativa) is one of the oldest cultivated crops in human history, grown for thousands of years for fibre, seed, and oil. Food-grade hemp is legally distinct from marijuana — industrial hemp varieties contain negligible levels of THC (below 0.3–1% depending on jurisdiction) and have no psychoactive effects.

Hemp seeds (technically achenes — small fruits with a hard shell) are eaten whole, hulled (as “hemp hearts”), or pressed into oil. They have a mild, nutty flavour and a tender texture. Hemp seed oil is used as a salad and finishing oil. Hemp protein powder, made from the pressed seed cake, is a popular plant-based protein supplement.

Hemp flour and hemp protein powder are made from what remains after hemp seeds are cold-pressed for oil. The resulting press cake is milled into a fine powder that retains much of the seed’s protein and fibre while being lower in fat than whole hemp seeds.

Hemp flour has a slightly nutty, earthy flavour and a greenish hue. It’s popular as a protein boost in smoothies, porridge, and baking, though it doesn’t behave like wheat flour — it lacks gluten and works best blended with other flours rather than used on its own. A common ratio is to substitute about a quarter of the regular flour in a recipe.

Culinary and supplemental oil extracted from pressed hemp seeds.

Whole, dried, or hulled seeds of the hemp plant used as a nutritional staple.

Hen Of The Woods.

General herbal infusions and dry blends composed of various leaves and flowers, representing the brewed beverage and its dry constituent parts.

Herring is a small, oily fish belonging to the family Clupeidae. It is one of the most abundant fish species in the world and has been a cornerstone of human diets for thousands of years, particularly in Northern Europe and Scandinavia.

Herring travel in enormous schools numbering in the millions, making them one of the most significant species in marine food webs. They feed on plankton and in turn are prey for larger fish, seabirds, and marine mammals. Their ecological importance extends well beyond their role as human food — herring populations are considered indicator species for ocean health.

Herring oil is a fish oil derived from the body fat of herring, one of the most oil-rich species in the sea. It’s primarily used as a dietary supplement and is valued for its high concentration of omega-3 fatty acids, particularly EPA and DHA.

Like other fish oils, herring oil is typically taken in capsule form rather than used in cooking. It has a characteristically fishy taste and aroma that limits its culinary applications, though it’s occasionally used in traditional Scandinavian preparations.

Hibiscus, specifically Hibiscus sabdariffa (also called rosella in Australia), is a tropical plant cultivated primarily for its fleshy calyces — the deep red, cup-shaped structures that surround the seed pod after the flower petals fall. These calyces are dried and used to make a vivid, tart infusion known variously as hibiscus tea, agua de jamaica, bissap, or karkadé depending on the region.

The plant originated in West Africa and spread through trade routes to the Caribbean, Central America, Southeast Asia, and northern Australia. It thrives in tropical and subtropical climates and is now grown commercially across dozens of countries. In Australia, rosella has a long history in Queensland, where it has been used in jams and cordials since the early colonial period.

Hibiscus tea is a vibrant, deep red infusion made by steeping dried hibiscus calyces in hot water. It has a bold, tart flavour reminiscent of cranberries or sour cherries, with a refreshing acidity that works well both hot and iced. It’s naturally caffeine-free.

The drink goes by many names around the world — agua de jamaica in Mexico, karkadé in Egypt, bissap in West Africa, sorrel in the Caribbean — reflecting its popularity across tropical regions. In each tradition, it’s often sweetened and sometimes spiced with ginger, cinnamon, or cloves.

Hickory refers to trees of the genus Carya, native to eastern North America and parts of East Asia. Several species produce edible nuts, with the shagbark hickory (Carya ovata) and shellbark hickory (Carya laciniosa) being the most commonly eaten. Hickory nuts have a rich, buttery flavour that is sometimes compared to pecans — which are, in fact, a closely related species within the same genus.

Hickory nuts were a staple food for many Indigenous North American peoples, who ground the kernels into a paste or milk used in cooking. European settlers also adopted hickory nuts, though commercial cultivation never developed to the same extent as other tree nuts. The trees are slow-growing, and the thick, hard shells make processing difficult compared to pecans or walnuts.

Hickory nuts are the fruit of hickory trees, native to North America and closely related to pecans. They have a rich, sweet, buttery flavour that’s often described as a more intense version of pecan, though they come in a much harder shell that makes them more challenging to crack.

Hickory nuts were a staple food for Indigenous North Americans and remain a valued wild-harvested food, though they’ve never been widely commercialised. The most prized species for eating are shagbark and shellbark hickory, while others can be bitter. They can be eaten raw, toasted, or used in baking anywhere you’d use pecans or walnuts.

Groups the raw aerial parts of the Hohoysi plant (Hopi Tea) with its primary prepared form as a brewed herbal tea.

Holy Basil.

Honey is one of the oldest sweeteners known to humanity, produced by honey bees that collect nectar from flowers and transform it through enzymatic activity and evaporation inside the hive. Its colour, flavour, and aroma vary enormously depending on the floral source — from pale, mild clover honey to dark, robust eucalyptus or ironbark varieties.

In the kitchen, honey is far more versatile than a simple sugar substitute. It adds moisture to baking, balances acidity in dressings and marinades, and pairs beautifully with cheese, yoghurt, and roasted nuts. Australian honeys, particularly those from native flora like leatherwood, yellow box, and manuka, are prized for their distinctive character.

The honey bee (Apis mellifera) is a social insect that has been managed by humans for thousands of years, primarily for honey production. A single colony can contain 20,000 to 80,000 bees working collectively to convert flower nectar into honey, which they store in hexagonal wax cells as a long-term energy reserve.

Honey has been used as a sweetener and preservative since ancient times — evidence of beekeeping dates back to at least 2400 BCE in Egypt. Beyond honey, bees produce beeswax comb, propolis, royal jelly, and bee pollen, all of which have food or traditional-use applications. However, honey remains by far the most commercially significant product.

Honey Mushroom.

A sweet-and-savory preparation blending mustard with honey, often used as a dipping sauce or salad dressing.

The honeybee (Apis mellifera) is one of the most widely managed insects in the world, kept primarily for its ability to produce honey from flower nectar. Colonies are highly organised, with worker bees collecting nectar, converting it to honey through enzymatic processes and evaporation, and storing it in wax comb cells within the hive.

Honeybees have been central to human food systems for millennia, both as a source of sweetener and as the world’s most important managed pollinator. Wild and semi-wild honeybee populations exist alongside managed hives in many regions, though commercial honey production relies almost entirely on beekeeping.

Honeydew Melon.

Horn Of Plenty.

The horned melon (Cucumis metuliferus), commonly called kiwano, is a fruit native to southern and central Africa. It belongs to the cucumber and melon family and is recognisable by its oval shape, bright orange skin covered in pointed horn-like spines, and vivid green, seed-filled, jelly-textured interior. The flavour is mild and slightly tart, often described as a blend of cucumber, banana, and lime.

The fruit has been cultivated in Africa for centuries and has spread to other warm regions including New Zealand, Australia, and parts of the Americas. It remains a niche product in most Western markets, valued as much for its striking appearance as for its taste. In its native range, the horned melon is eaten fresh, and the seeds and flesh are consumed together.

The horned melon, also known as kiwano or African horned cucumber, is an eye-catching fruit with a bright orange, spiny rind and emerald-green, seed-filled pulp. Originally from southern Africa, it belongs to the cucumber and melon family and has a mild, slightly tart flavour often compared to a blend of banana, lime, and cucumber.

The flesh is eaten by scooping it straight from the halved fruit, seeds and all. It can be added to fruit salads, blended into smoothies, or used as a decorative garnish. The flavour is subtle, so it pairs well with stronger tropical fruits or a squeeze of lime and a pinch of sugar.

The domestic horse (Equus caballus) is primarily known as a working and companion animal, but it is also a food animal in many parts of the world. Horse meat — often called chevaline — is consumed in Central Asia, parts of Europe (notably France, Italy, Belgium, and Kazakhstan), Japan, and South America. Horse milk, fermented into a drink called kumis or airag, is a traditional staple of Central Asian pastoral cultures.

Horse Gram.

Horse Mackerel.

The primary archetype for equine muscle tissue, covering raw and roasted preparations as well as generic meat forms.

Horse Mushroom.

Horseradish.

Hot and sour soup is a classic of Chinese cuisine, balancing white pepper heat against dark vinegar tang in a silky, egg-ribboned broth. The standard version includes shredded tofu, wood ear mushrooms, bamboo shoots, and sometimes pork or chicken, thickened to a satisfying consistency with cornflour.

It is a staple of Chinese restaurant menus in Australia and makes an excellent starter or light meal, particularly in cooler weather. The soup is meant to be assertively flavoured — sour enough to make you sit up, peppery enough to warm you through.

Hot chilli sauce is a staple condiment built on ripe red chillies, cooked down and preserved to deliver concentrated heat and flavour. Styles range enormously — from the thin, vinegary punch of Louisiana-style sauces to the thicker, more complex Asian chilli pastes — but the core remains the same: chillies, processed to make their heat accessible and shelf-stable.

In the kitchen, hot chilli sauce goes well beyond a table condiment. It’s used as a marinade ingredient, a stir-fry base, a pizza drizzle, and a wing sauce foundation. A few dashes can lift soups, eggs, noodles, and tacos.

Parboiled, smooth-textured sausages typically served in buns, including various emulsified meat links.

Hubbard Squash.

Huckleberry.

Human breast milk is the species-specific milk produced by the mammary glands of human mothers. It is the biological norm for infant feeding and is uniquely adapted to human nutritional needs during the first months and years of life. Its composition changes dynamically — from the initial thick, antibody-rich colostrum produced in the first days after birth to mature milk that adjusts in response to the infant’s age and needs.

Canonical human breast milk and its mature fluid preparations.

Prepared chickpea-based foods including hummus and falafel.

Hungarian Wax Pepper.

Hyacinth Bean.

Hyssop.

The Iberian pig (cerdo ibérico) is a traditional breed native to Spain and Portugal, distinguished by its dark skin, slender legs, and exceptional capacity to store intramuscular fat. It is the source of jamón ibérico, one of the world’s most valued cured meats, and is considered a distinct product category from conventional pork.

The breed evolved over centuries in the dehesa — the open oak woodlands of southwestern Spain and southern Portugal. Its ability to fatten efficiently on acorns (bellotas) during the autumn mast season produces meat with a distinctive marbling, flavour, and fat composition. The fat of acorn-finished Iberian pigs is notably high in oleic acid, the same monounsaturated fat found in olive oil.

Ice pops — known variously as icy poles, ice blocks, or freezer pops in Australia — are frozen confections made by freezing flavoured, sweetened liquid into moulds, often around a wooden stick. They are pure simplicity: water, sugar, flavouring, and colour, frozen solid.

They are a quintessential Australian summer treat, found in every corner shop freezer and home freezer alike. Commercial varieties range from basic sugar-water pops to those made with real fruit juice or purée. Italian ice (granita-style) is a slightly more sophisticated cousin — scraped or churned during freezing to produce a coarser, icier texture.

Crisphead variety known for its high water content and crunchy texture.

Iced tea is one of the most popular packaged beverages worldwide, offering a convenient, refreshing alternative to soft drinks. Most commercial versions are made from black tea, though green tea varieties are also common. They range from lightly sweetened to quite sugary, and often feature added flavours like lemon, peach, or mango.

In Australia, iced tea has grown steadily in popularity as a lighter option alongside juices and soft drinks. It’s widely available in supermarkets, convenience stores, and cafés. Some brands lean into a more natural, less-sweet profile, while others are closer to a flavoured soft drink.

Illipe refers to several species of tropical trees in the genus Shorea (particularly Shorea stenoptera), native to the rainforests of Borneo and Southeast Asia. The trees produce large, oily seeds — sometimes called illipe nuts or tengkawang — from which a pale, solid fat is extracted. This fat has a melting profile and composition remarkably similar to cocoa butter, making it one of the approved cocoa butter equivalents (CBEs) used in chocolate manufacturing.

Imitation vanilla is the most widely used form of vanilla flavouring in the world, found in everything from baked goods and ice cream to confectionery and beverages. Its key ingredient, synthetic vanillin, replicates the dominant flavour compound found in real vanilla beans but lacks the hundreds of minor compounds that give natural vanilla extract its complexity.

For most cooking and baking applications — especially where vanilla is one flavour among many — imitation vanilla performs well and is virtually indistinguishable from the real thing once heated. Where vanilla is the star flavour, such as in a custard or vanilla ice cream, the difference can be more noticeable.

Indian squash is an heirloom variety cultivated by the Navajo (Diné) people of the American Southwest as part of their traditional agricultural practices. It belongs to the broader family of summer squashes and is typically eaten when young and tender, with soft skin and mild, slightly sweet flesh.

This squash is one of the traditional “Three Sisters” crops — squash, corn, and beans — that form the foundation of many Indigenous American food systems. The three crops are grown together in a companion planting arrangement where each supports the others’ growth.

Indonesian Cinnamon.

Instant coffee is pre-brewed coffee that has been dried into a soluble powder or granules, allowing a cup to be made simply by adding hot water. It was invented in the early twentieth century and became a household staple during World War II, when its convenience and long shelf life made it ideal for military rations.

Australia has long been one of the world’s largest consumers of instant coffee per capita, though specialty and café culture has shifted preferences in recent decades. Instant coffee still dominates in many workplaces and homes for its sheer convenience — no equipment needed, consistent results, and a shelf life measured in years.

Instant tea is a convenience product that eliminates the steeping step of traditional tea preparation. The powder or granules dissolve directly in hot or cold water, producing a cup of tea in seconds. Unsweetened varieties offer a relatively clean tea flavour, though they typically lack the depth and body of freshly brewed leaf tea.

Instant tea is more popular in some markets than others — it never gained the same foothold in Australia as instant coffee did, partly because tea bags are already quite convenient. It’s more commonly encountered as an ingredient in commercial iced tea mixes, chai blends, and flavoured tea products than as a standalone pantry item.

Iris, in a culinary and flavouring context, refers primarily to species whose rhizomes (underground stems) are dried and processed into orris root — most commonly Iris germanica, Iris florentina, and Iris pallida. Orris root has a delicate, violet-like aroma that develops during a lengthy drying and aging process, and it has been used in perfumery, flavouring, and traditional medicine since ancient times.

As a food ingredient, orris root is used in small quantities as a flavouring in gin, liqueurs, spice blends (notably some Moroccan ras el hanout recipes), and occasionally in confectionery. It also serves as a fixative — a substance that helps other flavours and aromas persist.

Irish Moss.

Ivy Gourd.

Jabuticaba.

Jack Bean.

A grouping of jack mackerel encompassing both fresh raw flesh and common canned preparations.

Jackfruit.

The jalapeño is a cultivar of Capsicum annuum, one of the most widely consumed chilli peppers in the world. It originated in Mexico — its name comes from the city of Xalapa (Jalapa) in Veracruz — and has become a global staple in kitchens, restaurants, and food manufacturing. It typically measures 2,500 to 8,000 Scoville heat units, placing it in the mild-to-medium range of chilli heat.

Jalapeños are versatile: they are eaten fresh, pickled (the sliced rings common on nachos), stuffed, roasted, and smoked. When smoke-dried, the jalapeño becomes a chipotle pepper, a distinct product with a deep, smoky flavour widely used in Mexican and Tex-Mex cooking.

Covers the fresh fruit and its most common simple preservation as a pickled condiment.

The edible seed of the Japanese chestnut (Castanea crenata), including its raw state and common culinary preparations such as boiled, steamed, dried, and roasted forms.

Japanese Eel.

Japanese Eggplant.

The fruit of the Japanese persimmon tree, encompassing fresh and dried preparations.

Jasmine.

Jasmine Rice.

The central archetype for the java plum (jambolan), encompassing the whole fruit and its raw culinary forms.

A grouping of jellyfish in its whole form and common preserved preparations like dried and salted.

A collection of raw, peeled, and cooked preparations of the Jerusalem artichoke tuber.

Jicama.

Jobs Tears.

John Dory.

Jostaberry.

Jujube.

Juniper berries are the small, round, blue-black seed cones of juniper shrubs and trees (genus Juniperus), most commonly Juniperus communis. Though called berries, they are technically fleshy cones. They have a sharp, piney, slightly resinous flavour with citrus and peppery undertones. Their most famous use is as the primary botanical in gin, but they are also used in European cooking — particularly in Scandinavian and Central European cuisines — to season game meats, sauerkraut, and braises.

Jute leaves (Corchorus olitorius and Corchorus capsularis) are the edible foliage of the jute plant, better known globally as a fibre crop. As a vegetable, jute leaves are widely eaten across West Africa, the Middle East, Southeast Asia, and parts of the Caribbean. In Egypt and the Levant, the dish molokhia — a thick, mucilaginous soup made from minced jute leaves — is a staple. In West Africa, the leaves are known by various names including ewedu (Yoruba) and used in soups and stews.

Groups raw and cooked preparations of jute leaves used as a culinary potherb.

Kabocha is a type of winter squash (Cucurbita maxima) that originated in the Americas and was introduced to Japan via Portuguese traders in the sixteenth century. The name simply means ‘pumpkin’ in Japanese, though in English it refers specifically to a group of squat, round varieties with dark green, bumpy skin and vivid orange, dense flesh.

Kabocha has a drier, denser texture than many other pumpkins, with a naturally sweet, chestnut-like flavour that intensifies when roasted. It is a staple of Japanese home cooking — simmered in dashi broth, sliced into tempura, or puréed into soups. It is also widely used in Korean, Thai, and other Asian cuisines.

Kale is a member of the brassica family, closely related to cabbage, broccoli, and Brussels sprouts. It comes in several varieties — curly kale with tightly ruffled leaves, Tuscan kale (cavolo nero) with long, dark, dimpled leaves, and red or purple varieties. All share a sturdy texture and earthy, mildly bitter flavour that distinguishes them from more delicate salad greens.

Kale’s robust leaves hold up well to cooking, making it suited to soups, stews, stir-fries, and braises. Tuscan kale is a classic addition to ribollita and minestrone. Raw kale can be used in salads when massaged with oil and acid to soften its tough fibres — a technique that has become standard. It also crisps well when baked into chips.

Kangaroo.

The Kashmiri chili is a variety of dried red chili pepper originating from the Kashmir region of northern India. It is prized in Indian cooking primarily for the rich, deep red colour it imparts to dishes, rather than for its heat — Kashmiri chilis are relatively mild, typically ranging from 1,000 to 2,000 Scoville heat units, comparable to a mild paprika.

Kashmiri chili is a defining ingredient in many North Indian and Kashmiri dishes, including rogan josh, tandoori preparations, and various curry pastes. The dried peppers are often ground into a fine powder that is a staple in Indian kitchens. Its combination of vibrant colour, mild heat, and subtle fruity flavour makes it distinct from hotter varieties commonly used in southern Indian cooking.

Katemfe (Thaumatococcus daniellii) is a low-growing tropical plant native to the rainforests of West Africa. The plant produces small, pale purple fruit, each containing one to three hard, black seeds surrounded by a translucent, gel-like aril. This aril contains thaumatin, a protein that is roughly 2,000 times sweeter than sucrose by weight, making it one of the most intensely sweet natural compounds ever identified.

The fruit itself has been used as a sweetener and flavour enhancer in West African communities for centuries. The leaves of the plant are also used traditionally for wrapping food. Thaumatin extracted from katemfe has been approved as a food additive in many countries (including Australia, where it appears as E957) and is used in small quantities to enhance sweetness and mask bitterness in processed foods, chewing gum, and beverages.

Kefir grains are small, gelatinous, cauliflower-like clusters made up of a complex community of lactic acid bacteria, acetic acid bacteria, and yeasts, all bound together in a matrix of proteins and polysaccharides (primarily kefiran). They are used to ferment milk into kefir — a tangy, slightly effervescent cultured drink with a consistency between milk and yoghurt.

The origin of kefir grains is something of a biological mystery. Unlike other fermentation starters that can be created from scratch, kefir grains can only be grown from existing grains — no one has successfully assembled one from individual microbial species. They are thought to have originated in the Caucasus Mountains, where kefir has been a dietary staple for centuries.

Kelp refers to several species of large brown seaweed that grow in cool, nutrient-rich coastal waters. The most culinarily important is kombu (Saccharina japonica), a cornerstone of Japanese cuisine and the original source of umami — the savoury fifth taste was first identified in kombu by a Japanese chemist in 1908.

In the kitchen, kelp is most famously used to make dashi, the foundational Japanese stock. A single piece of dried kombu simmered briefly in water produces a clean, deeply savoury broth that underpins miso soup, noodle broths, and simmered dishes. Kelp also appears in salads, stir-fries, and as a wrap for rice and fish. Its natural glutamates make it a useful flavour enhancer — a strip added to a pot of beans or grains boosts savouriness.

Key Lime.

Khorasan Wheat.

The kidney bean is a variety of the common bean (Phaseolus vulgaris), named for its distinctive kidney shape and deep red-brown colour, though white and speckled varieties also exist. Native to the Americas, kidney beans were domesticated thousands of years ago in what is now Mexico and Central America and are now one of the most widely consumed legumes globally.

Kidney beans have a firm, creamy texture when cooked and a mild, slightly earthy flavour that absorbs surrounding seasonings well. They are a staple ingredient in dishes across many cuisines — chili con carne, rajma (a North Indian kidney bean curry), red beans and rice in Louisiana, and feijoada in Brazil. They are a significant source of plant-based protein and are a dietary staple in many regions.

Sprouted kidney beans consumed as a vegetable, distinct from the mature dried or canned pulse.

Kidney beans are one of the most recognisable and popular dried beans worldwide. They come in several colour variants — dark red, light red, and white (cannellini) — but the classic dark red kidney bean is the most iconic, with its glossy, curved shape and rich burgundy colour. They have a firm, creamy texture when cooked and a mild, slightly sweet flavour.

Kidney beans are a staple in cuisines around the world. They’re essential in chilli con carne, Cajun red beans and rice, Indian rajma, and many Caribbean stews. Their firm texture holds up well in long-cooked dishes, and they absorb surrounding flavours readily. In Australia, they’re one of the most commonly used tinned beans, though the dried form offers better texture and economy for those willing to soak and cook them.

Fermented cabbage products, focusing on the traditional Korean dish and its specific cabbage-based preparations.

King George whiting (Sillaginodes punctatus) is a species of fish found only in the coastal waters of southern Australia, from around Jurien Bay in Western Australia to eastern Victoria. It is one of Australia’s most highly regarded eating fish, valued for its fine, white, delicately flavoured flesh and firm texture. It is named after King George Sound in Western Australia, where the species was first formally described.

The fish inhabits shallow sandy bays and seagrass beds as juveniles, moving to deeper offshore waters as adults. It is a key target species for both recreational and commercial fisheries in South Australia, Victoria, and Western Australia. King George whiting is considered a premium fish and commands high prices at market, particularly in Adelaide and Melbourne, where it is closely associated with local seafood culture.

King George Whiting fillets in raw and simple cooked forms (baked and steamed).

King mackerel is one of the larger members of the mackerel family, with firm, dense flesh that holds up well to high-heat cooking methods like grilling, barbecuing, and pan-searing. Its pronounced flavour sets it apart from milder white fish and makes it a popular choice for those who enjoy a more robust seafood taste.

The flesh is greyish when raw, turning white and flaky when cooked. King mackerel steaks are the most common cut, often simply seasoned with lemon, salt, and pepper. It also takes well to smoking and is used in curries and fish cakes across Southeast Asian cuisines.

King Oyster Mushroom.

King Prawn.

Kippers are Atlantic herring that have been split, salted, and cold-smoked, giving them a deep golden-brown colour and a rich, savoury flavour. They are a traditional breakfast item in Britain, typically grilled or poached and served with bread and butter.

The smoking process firms the flesh and gives it a characteristic woodsmoke aroma that pairs well with simple accompaniments — a squeeze of lemon, some toast, or scrambled eggs. Kippers can also be eaten cold, flaked into salads, or used as a base for pâtés and spreads.

Kiwifruit is a berry that grows on woody vines of the genus Actinidia, originally native to central and eastern China where it was known as the Chinese gooseberry. It was introduced to New Zealand in the early twentieth century and later rebranded as kiwifruit for export markets.

The most common variety, Actinidia deliciosa, has brown fuzzy skin and bright green flesh dotted with tiny black seeds. Gold-fleshed varieties (Actinidia chinensis) have become increasingly popular for their sweeter, less acidic flavour. Both types are eaten fresh, often scooped from the halved skin with a spoon.

Kodo Millet.

Kohlrabi.

Kokum.

Komatsuna.

Kombu.

Fermented tea beverages, including plain and flavored commercial products.

Kombucha Scoby.

Konjac is a tropical and subtropical plant grown primarily for its large, starchy corm (underground bulb). Native to parts of East and Southeast Asia, it has been cultivated in China, Japan, and Korea for centuries, both as a food source and in traditional medicine.

The corm itself is rarely eaten directly. Instead, it is processed into konjac flour or glucomannan, a water-soluble dietary fibre that forms a firm, gelatinous texture when mixed with water and an alkaline agent. This gel is the basis for shirataki noodles, konjac jelly snacks, and various meat and seafood substitutes.

Korean chilli pepper refers to varieties of Capsicum annuum traditionally cultivated on the Korean Peninsula. These peppers are fundamental to Korean cuisine, providing the heat and colour for staples like kimchi, gochujang (fermented chilli paste), and gochugaru (dried chilli flakes).

Compared to many other chilli varieties, Korean peppers tend to be moderately hot with a slightly sweet, fruity undertone. The thin-walled fruit ripens from green to bright red and is used at both stages — green peppers are eaten fresh or pickled, while red peppers are dried and ground.

Korean Melon.

Korean Radish.

Krill.

Kudzu.

Kumamoto Oyster.

Kumquats are the smallest of the commonly eaten citrus fruits, roughly the size and shape of a large olive. Unlike other citrus, the thin rind is the sweetest part, while the juicy interior is bracingly tart — and the whole fruit is eaten together, skin included. This contrast of sweet and sour in a single bite makes them quite distinctive.

They can be eaten fresh as a snack, sliced into salads, or used in marmalades, chutneys, and syrups. Kumquats also make excellent preserves and candied fruit, and they pair well with rich meats like duck and pork. Their ornamental appearance makes them a popular garnish.

The aromatic leaves and traditional herbal tea preparations derived from species of the Rhododendron genus, including indigenous Alaskan blends.

Lager Yeast.

Lake Trout.

Laksa leaf (Persicaria odorata) is a tropical herb native to Southeast Asia, widely used as a fresh garnish and flavouring in Malaysian, Singaporean, Vietnamese, and Indonesian cooking. Despite the common name Vietnamese mint, it is not related to true mints — it belongs to the buckwheat family.

The plant has distinctive pointed leaves with a dark chevron marking and a complex flavour that combines citrusy, peppery, and coriander-like notes. It is most associated with laksa, the spicy coconut noodle soup from which it takes its common name in Australia, but it appears in spring rolls, salads, and many other dishes.

Covers all standard cuts, roasting pieces, and preparation methods for young sheep meat.

This is a commercially prepared baby food designed for older infants transitioning to more textured foods. It combines lamb with vegetables in a junior-texture purée — slightly chunkier than the smooth purées given to younger babies, helping to develop chewing and swallowing skills.

Lamb and vegetable combinations are a common offering in the baby food aisle, providing a savoury meal option alongside the more prevalent fruit-based purées. The flavour is mild and the seasoning is minimal, as is standard for commercial baby foods.

Individual bone-in cuts from the loin, rib, and shoulder regions.

Lambsquarters (Chenopodium album), also known as fat hen, is a common wild plant found across temperate regions worldwide, including Australia. Its young leaves and growing tips are tender and mild-flavoured, with a taste somewhere between spinach and silverbeet, and can be used in much the same way — sautéed, steamed, added to soups, or eaten raw in salads when very young.

The plant has been gathered as a food source for thousands of years and was a significant green vegetable in many cultures before the widespread cultivation of spinach. It grows readily in disturbed soils, gardens, and farm margins, and is considered a weed in most agricultural contexts.

Land Cress.

Langoustine.

Langsat.

Lavender is a woody, aromatic shrub in the mint family (Lamiaceae), native to the Mediterranean region. While best known for its use in perfumery and aromatherapy, culinary lavender has a long tradition in French and Mediterranean cooking.

The edible flowers have an intensely floral, slightly sweet flavour with hints of citrus and mint. In cooking, lavender is used sparingly — a little goes a long way — in baked goods, ice cream, syrups, teas, and as part of herbes de Provence. English lavender (Lavandula angustifolia) is the preferred culinary species, as other varieties can taste overly camphoraceous.

Laver is a group of thin, sheet-like red seaweeds (Porphyra species) found along coastlines worldwide. It is best known as the seaweed used to make nori — the dried sheets that wrap sushi — though in its fresh or minimally processed form it has a softer, more delicate texture and a sweet, umami-rich flavour.

In Welsh and Irish cooking, laver has a long tradition — laverbread (bara lawr) is made by boiling the seaweed into a dark, paste-like purée that is rolled in oatmeal and fried. In East Asian cuisines, it is dried into sheets or flakes and used as a seasoning, wrap, or snack.

The common mature leek encompassing various culinary preparations, specific plant parts, and processed forms like freeze-dried.

Legumes are plants in the family Fabaceae, one of the largest and most economically important plant families in the world. The term covers a vast range of food crops including beans, peas, lentils, chickpeas, soybeans, and peanuts, as well as forage and cover crops.

As a food category, legumes are a dietary staple for billions of people. Their seeds — often dried and stored — are among the most shelf-stable and transportable protein sources available. Different legume crops dominate in different regions: lentils and chickpeas in South Asia and the Middle East, black beans and kidney beans in the Americas, soybeans in East Asia, and a wide variety across Africa.

Legume pasta is made from flour milled from pulses such as lentils, chickpeas, or black beans. It has become a popular alternative to traditional wheat pasta, particularly for those looking for more protein or following a gluten-free diet.

The texture is slightly different from wheat pasta — typically firmer and a touch grainier — and it carries a subtle earthy flavour from the legume base. It works best with robust sauces that complement its nuttier character, such as pesto, bolognese, or garlic and olive oil.

The whole, fresh citrus fruit used primarily for its juice and acidic properties.

Lemon Balm.

Lemon Basil.

Processed lemon derivatives used for seasoning, baking, and cocktail preparation.

Lemon juice is a kitchen essential — sharp, clean, and bright, it acts as both a flavouring and a balancing agent in cooking. A dash of it sharpens dressings, finishes sauces, and prevents cut fruit and vegetables from browning.

It’s available fresh from the fruit, as a bottled juice, or as a frozen concentrate. Fresh juice has the brightest flavour, but bottled lemon juice is a convenient substitute when consistency matters more than nuance, such as in marinades or large-batch cooking.

Lemon Myrtle.

The outer zest and rind of the lemon, used for aromatic flavoring.

Lemon pudding mix is a convenient dessert preparation that delivers a sweet, tangy lemon-flavoured pudding with minimal effort. The dry mix typically contains sugar, starch, and lemon flavouring, and sets into a smooth, creamy pudding when combined with milk and chilled.

It’s a nostalgic staple in many Australian households — quick enough for a weeknight dessert, and a handy base for trifles, pie fillings, or layered desserts. The lemon flavour is bright and sweet, sitting somewhere between a custard and a mousse in character.

Lemon Sole.

Lemon Thyme.

Lemon Verbena.

Lemon-lime soda is a clear, caffeine-free carbonated drink with a sweet, citrusy flavour. Brands like Sprite and 7Up are the best-known examples, and it’s one of the most popular soft drink styles worldwide.

Beyond drinking it straight, lemon-lime soda is commonly used as a mixer in cocktails and mocktails, and it’s a classic home remedy offered to settle an upset stomach. It also turns up in some recipes — particularly in baking, where the carbonation can add lightness to batters.

Frozen lemonade concentrate is a convenient way to make lemonade at home — simply thaw, dilute with water, and serve. It delivers a sweet-tart lemon flavour that’s consistent and easy to prepare in large quantities.

While fresh-squeezed lemonade has the edge in flavour, frozen concentrate is a practical pantry staple for hot days, kids’ parties, and entertaining. It can also be used as an ingredient in cocktails, slushies, and desserts, or as a glaze for baked goods.

Lemongrass.

Lentils (Lens culinaris) are among the oldest cultivated crops, with evidence of their use dating back over 10,000 years in the Fertile Crescent. They are small, lens-shaped seeds that come in several varieties — red, green, brown, black (beluga), and French (Puy) — each with slightly different cooking properties and flavours.

As a food, lentils are remarkably versatile. Red lentils break down quickly into a smooth texture, making them ideal for South Asian dals and soups. Green and brown lentils hold their shape and work well in salads, stews, and side dishes. Lentils require no soaking before cooking, which sets them apart from most other dried legumes.

Lentils are one of the oldest cultivated foods, and they remain one of the most practical — inexpensive, shelf-stable, high in protein and fibre, and faster to cook than most other dried legumes, with no soaking required.

Common varieties include brown lentils (hold their shape well, good in soups and salads), red and yellow lentils (break down quickly, ideal for dhal, curries, and thickening), green lentils (firm and slightly peppery, great in salads), and French-style Puy lentils (small, dark, and nutty).

Lesser Galangal.

Lettuce (Lactuca sativa) is the world’s most widely grown salad vegetable. It has been cultivated for at least 4,500 years, originating from a wild ancestor in the Mediterranean and Middle East. Today it comes in dozens of varieties grouped into broad types: crisphead (iceberg), cos or romaine, butterhead, and loose-leaf.

Each type has a distinct character. Iceberg is crunchy and mild, romaine is sturdy and slightly bitter (the classic Caesar salad lettuce), butterhead is soft and sweet, and loose-leaf varieties offer a range of colours, shapes, and flavours. Lettuce is overwhelmingly eaten raw in salads, sandwiches, wraps, and burgers, though it is occasionally cooked in soups and stir-fries in some food traditions.

Licorice (Glycyrrhiza glabra) is a flowering plant native to southern Europe and parts of Asia. Its root contains glycyrrhizin, a compound roughly 50 times sweeter than sucrose, which gives licorice its characteristic flavour.

The plant has been used for thousands of years across many cultures — in traditional Chinese medicine, in Middle Eastern cuisine, and in European confectionery. Today licorice root is used as a flavouring in sweets, beverages, tobacco products, and herbal teas. It should not be confused with anise or star anise, which share a similar flavour profile but come from entirely different plants.

Consolidates mature light red kidney beans and their dried, technical forms into a single human-friendly archetype.

Consolidates mature seeds and technical dry forms of light tan beans into a single culinary archetype.

Lima beans (Phaseolus lunatus), also known as butter beans in many parts of the world including Australia, are one of the oldest cultivated crops in the Americas, with evidence of domestication in Peru dating back thousands of years. They come in two main types: large-seeded (also called butter beans) and small-seeded (baby limas).

Lima beans can be eaten at the immature green stage, when they have a delicate, sweet flavour, or as dried mature seeds with a starchier, more robust character. They are used in succotash, soups, casseroles, and as a simple side dish. The mature dried form is a staple in many tropical and subtropical food systems across Central America, Africa, and Southeast Asia.

Dried lima beans — sometimes called butter beans in Australia — are large, flat legumes with a distinctively creamy, starchy texture and a mild, buttery flavour. They’re one of the most substantial beans you can cook with.

They shine in slow-cooked dishes like casseroles, baked beans, and hearty soups, where their size and texture hold up well. They’re also excellent braised in tomato sauce in the Greek style (gigantes plaki), or simply dressed with olive oil and herbs as a side dish.

Fresh lima beans — also known as young or baby butter beans — are harvested before the seeds fully mature, giving them a bright green colour, tender texture, and sweeter, more delicate flavour than their dried counterparts.

They’re commonly available frozen in Australia and make a quick-cooking side dish or addition to soups, risottos, and succotash. Their soft, creamy texture when cooked pairs well with butter, herbs, and lighter seasonings.

Limes are citrus fruits, most commonly referring to the Persian lime (Citrus × latifolia) or the smaller, more aromatic key lime (Citrus × aurantiifolia). They are thought to have originated in Southeast Asia and were spread along trade routes to the Middle East, North Africa, and eventually the Americas.

Limes are a cornerstone ingredient in many of the world’s cuisines — essential to Thai, Mexican, Indian, and Caribbean cooking, among others. Their juice is used to brighten dishes, make drinks, dress salads, and cure fish in preparations like ceviche. Lime zest provides a more concentrated citrus flavour. In Australia, limes are readily available year-round, and the native Australian finger lime is a distinct, unrelated species gaining popularity for its caviar-like pulp.

Pure lime juice extracted from the fruit, including fresh, canned, and unsweetened bottled versions.

Limeade is a refreshing cold beverage built around lime juice, sugar, and water. It sits alongside lemonade as a classic citrus cooler, though its flavour is sharper and more aromatic. In Australia, limeade is less common than lemonade but appears regularly as a mixer and a warm-weather refreshment.

This particular form starts as a frozen concentrate — lime juice that has been reduced, sweetened, and frozen for storage. When mixed with water according to the pack directions, it produces a ready-to-drink limeade with a consistent sweet-tart balance.

Ling is a deep-water fish found in southern Australian waters and the North Atlantic. In Australia, pink ling is one of the most commercially important deep-sea species, valued by chefs and home cooks alike for its clean flavour and versatile flesh.

The meat is white to pale pink, firm enough to hold together during cooking, and breaks into large, satisfying flakes. It suits a wide range of preparations — pan-frying, baking, grilling, and poaching all work well. It’s a popular choice for fish and chips and is excellent in curries and stews where a fish that won’t fall apart is needed.

Lingcod is a predatory fish native to the North Pacific, found from Alaska down to Baja California. Despite its name, it is neither a ling nor a cod — it belongs to the greenling family. It’s a prized catch among recreational and commercial fishers for its size and excellent eating quality.

The flesh is lean, white, and notably firm, with a clean, mildly sweet taste. It holds up exceptionally well to grilling, pan-searing, and baking. Some specimens have a distinctive blue-green tint to their raw flesh, which is harmless and disappears entirely when cooked.

Groups liver and organ-specific records for lingcod, distinct from standard muscle meat.

The raw fruit of the lingonberry plant, including specific regional wild-harvested forms.

Lingzhi.

Lion’s mane (Hericium erinaceus) is a striking fungus that grows in shaggy, globe-shaped clusters of white spines, giving it a resemblance to a lion’s mane or a white pom-pom. It is found naturally on hardwood trees — particularly oak and beech — across North America, Europe, and Asia.

When cooked, lion’s mane has a texture and flavour often compared to crab or lobster, making it popular in plant-based cooking as a seafood substitute. It can be sautéed, roasted, or shredded and pan-fried into cakes. Once a niche foraged ingredient, it has become increasingly mainstream and is now widely available from specialty mushroom growers, including in Australia.

Consolidates general culinary forms and technical designations of the Lion’s Mane mushroom fruiting body into a single archetype.

Lionfish.

Liquorice refers both to the root of the Glycyrrhiza glabra plant and to the confectionery and flavourings produced from it. The root contains glycyrrhizin, a naturally occurring compound that is intensely sweet — far sweeter than sugar — with a distinctive anise-like flavour.

As a confectionery product, liquorice has deep roots in European food culture, particularly in the Netherlands, Scandinavia, and the UK, where it appears in everything from soft sweets to salty ‘drop’. Liquorice extract is also used as a flavouring in beverages, baked goods, and tobacco. In Australia, liquorice confectionery — both the sweet and salty varieties — is a familiar treat, though it remains more of a specialty item than a mainstream sweet.

Liquorice candy is a distinctive sweet made with extract from the root of the liquorice plant, giving it its characteristic deep, anise-like flavour and dark colour. It’s a divisive treat — people tend to love it or avoid it entirely — but it has devoted fans across Australia, Scandinavia, and the Netherlands.

Traditional black liquorice has a complex flavour profile that is simultaneously sweet, slightly bitter, and herbaceous. Australian liquorice tends to be softer and sweeter than the salty Scandinavian varieties. It’s sold as twists, straps, allsorts, bullets, and countless other shapes.

Little Millet.

Littleneck Clam.

Lobsters are large, clawed crustaceans found in cold ocean waters worldwide. The most commercially important species are the American lobster (Homarus americanus) from the North Atlantic and various spiny lobster species (Panulirus spp.) found in warmer waters, including off the coast of Australia.

Lobster flesh is prized for its firm texture and sweet, delicate flavour. It is served boiled, steamed, grilled, or in dishes like lobster rolls, bisques, and thermidor. In Australia, the Western rock lobster (Panulirus cygnus) and Southern rock lobster (Jasus edwardsii) — often called crayfish locally — are significant both culturally and commercially, with much of the catch exported to Asian markets.

Lobster and crayfish meat, with a focus on tails and steamed preparations.

Lobster Mushroom.

Locust bean gum and guar gum are both plant-derived hydrocolloids — substances that thicken and stabilise when mixed with water. Locust bean gum comes from the seeds of the carob tree (Ceratonia siliqua), native to the Mediterranean, while guar gum comes from the seeds of the guar plant (Cyamopsis tetragonoloba), a legume grown primarily in India and Pakistan.

Both gums are widely used in the food industry as thickening, gelling, and stabilising agents. They appear in ice cream, sauces, dressings, baked goods, and dairy products. While they serve similar functions, they have different properties — locust bean gum works synergistically with other gums, while guar gum is a more effective standalone thickener. You will find one or both listed on the ingredient panels of many processed foods.

Loganberry.

Long Pepper.

Longan.

Loquat.

The lotus (Nelumbo nucifera), also known as sacred lotus, is an aquatic plant that grows in shallow freshwater across Asia and northern Australia. While revered in many cultures for its flowers, it is also an important food plant — both the rhizome (underground stem) and the seeds are eaten.

Lotus root has a crunchy texture and mild, slightly sweet flavour. When sliced, it reveals a distinctive pattern of holes running through its length. It is used in stir-fries, soups, salads, and as tempura in Japanese cuisine. Lotus seeds are eaten fresh, dried, or made into paste for mooncakes and other Asian sweets. In Australia, lotus root is available at Asian grocery stores and is increasingly found in mainstream supermarkets.

Lotus root is the rhizome of the sacred lotus plant, grown underwater in ponds and paddies across Asia. When sliced crosswise, it reveals a beautiful lace-like pattern of holes that makes it one of the most visually striking vegetables in the kitchen.

The texture is crisp and starchy — similar to a water chestnut — with a mild, slightly sweet flavour. It’s a staple across Chinese, Japanese, Korean, and Southeast Asian cooking, appearing in stir-fries, soups, salads, and tempura. Thinly sliced and deep-fried, it makes elegant, crunchy chips. Braised slowly, it becomes tender and absorbs surrounding flavours beautifully.

Lotus seeds are the edible kernels found in the distinctive seed pod of the lotus plant. They have been a valued food in Chinese, Japanese, and Southeast Asian cuisines for centuries, appearing in both sweet and savoury dishes.

The flavour is subtle and nutty, with a soft, starchy texture when cooked — somewhat reminiscent of a mild chickpea or macadamia. In Chinese cooking, they’re a classic ingredient in sweet soups, mooncake filling (lotus seed paste), and congee. They also appear in savoury dishes like eight-treasure rice and braised preparations.

Lovage.

Lucuma.

Luffa, sometimes called ridge gourd or sponge gourd, is a tropical vegetable harvested while still immature and tender. The flesh is soft and mildly sweet, with a texture somewhere between zucchini and okra. Once cooked, it becomes silky and absorbs the flavours of whatever it’s paired with.

It’s a staple in many Asian cuisines, turning up in stir-fries, soups, and curries across China, India, and Southeast Asia. In Australia, luffa is increasingly available at Asian grocery stores and farmers’ markets during the warmer months. It pairs well with garlic, ginger, and light sauces, and cooks quickly — usually needing only a few minutes in a hot pan or wok.

Luncheon meat is a shelf-stable canned meat made primarily from pork, seasoned and pressed into a loaf shape. It has a smooth, uniform texture and a salty, mildly spiced flavour. Sliced straight from the tin, it can be eaten cold in sandwiches or fried until golden and slightly crispy on the outside.

It became widely popular during and after the Second World War, when canned protein was practical and affordable. Brands like SPAM and various homebrand versions remain pantry staples across Australia, the Pacific Islands, and much of Asia. In Hawaii and Korea it’s practically a cultural institution, turning up in everything from musubi to army stew.

Lupins are flowering plants in the legume family (Lupinus), with several species cultivated for their seeds. The narrow-leafed lupin (Lupinus angustifolius) is the dominant crop species, and Australia — particularly Western Australia — is the world’s largest producer.

Traditionally, lupin seeds were soaked and brined to remove bitter alkaloids, then eaten as a snack — a practice still common around the Mediterranean. Modern sweet (low-alkaloid) varieties can be processed without extensive soaking. Lupin flour and protein are increasingly used in food manufacturing as a high-protein, high-fibre, gluten-free ingredient in bread, pasta, and snack foods. Lupin is a recognised allergen, particularly for people with peanut allergies, and must be declared on food labels in Australia.

Lupin beans are the seeds of the lupin plant, a legume native to the Mediterranean and widely grown in Western Australia. The mature seeds are large, flat, and pale yellow, with a firm, slightly chewy texture and a mild, earthy, faintly bitter flavour. They’re one of the highest-protein legumes available.

In Mediterranean countries — particularly Italy, Spain, Portugal, and Egypt — brined lupin beans are a common street snack and bar nibble, eaten by popping the seed out of its skin. In Australia, lupins have traditionally been grown as animal feed and a rotation crop, but they’re gaining attention as a human food thanks to their impressive protein content and suitability for gluten-free diets.

Fresh and frozen lychee fruit, representing the primary raw and minimally processed forms of the fruit.

Maca.

Macadamia is one of the few commercially significant food plants that originated in Australia. The genus is native to the rainforests of south-east Queensland and northern New South Wales, where Indigenous Australians have eaten the nuts for thousands of years. Two species are commercially grown: Macadamia integrifolia and Macadamia tetraphylla.

Today macadamias are grown in Australia, Hawaii, South Africa, Kenya, and parts of Central and South America. Australia remains one of the world’s largest producers. The nuts are valued for their high oil content and rich, buttery flavour, and are used whole as snacks, in baking, confectionery, and for cold-pressed oil. The shell is famously difficult to crack, requiring specialised equipment for commercial processing.

Macadamia nuts are one of the few native Australian food plants to become a major commercial crop. The kernel is round, pale, and exceptionally creamy, with a rich, buttery flavour and a satisfying crunch that softens to a smooth, almost melt-in-the-mouth texture. They’re one of the most calorie-dense nuts, owing to their very high oil content.

Originally gathered by Aboriginal Australians — who knew them as kindal kindal or bauple nut — macadamias were commercialised in the late 19th century, with Hawaii becoming an early major producer. Today, Australia is one of the world’s largest growers, with orchards concentrated in Queensland and northern New South Wales. They’re a premium nut worldwide, reflected in their price.

Pure oil extracted from macadamia nuts used for culinary and cosmetic purposes.

The dried lacy covering (aril) of the nutmeg seed, treated as a distinct spice from the kernel.

Mackerel is a fast-swimming pelagic fish found in temperate and tropical oceans worldwide. The flesh is distinctly rich, oily, and full-flavoured — more assertive than most white fish but not as strong as sardines. The meat is firm and dark, with a silvery, iridescent skin that crisps up beautifully when cooked.

Several species are sold as mackerel in Australia, including blue mackerel (commonly caught off the east coast) and Spanish mackerel (popular in northern waters). It’s an affordable, widely available fish that’s excellent grilled, barbecued, smoked, or pan-fried. The bold flavour holds up well against strong accompaniments like citrus, chilli, and vinegar.

Mahaleb cherry (Prunus mahaleb) is a small deciduous tree native to central and southern Europe, western Asia, and parts of North Africa. Unlike sweet or sour cherries, the mahaleb cherry is not grown for its tiny, bitter fruit but for the aromatic kernels found inside the cherry stones.

The dried, ground kernels have a distinctive flavour that combines notes of cherry, almond, and vanilla. Mahaleb is used as a spice in Middle Eastern, Greek, and Turkish baking — particularly in breads, cookies, and pastries. It is sometimes called mahlab or mahlep. Outside its traditional regions, it remains a relatively obscure ingredient but can be found in specialty spice shops.

Mahi-mahi, also known as dolphinfish (no relation to dolphins), is a large, fast-growing tropical fish found in warm ocean waters around the world. The flesh is firm, lean, and mildly sweet, with a clean flavour that appeals to people who don’t typically enjoy strong-tasting fish. When cooked, it flakes into large, moist pieces.

It’s a popular fish in Australian seafood restaurants, particularly in tropical Queensland, where it’s often served grilled or pan-fried with citrus or tropical fruit salsas. The firm texture means it holds together well on the barbecue, making it an excellent choice for outdoor cooking. It also works well in tacos, curries, and ceviche.

Maitake.

Maitake, also known as hen-of-the-woods, is a distinctive mushroom that grows in large, overlapping clusters of grey-brown, fan-shaped caps. The texture is firm yet tender, and the flavour is deep, earthy, and woodsy — more robust than common button mushrooms. The frilly edges crisp up beautifully when roasted or fried.

Native to the temperate forests of Japan, North America, and Europe, maitake has been foraged and prized in Japanese cooking for centuries — the name translates roughly as “dancing mushroom.” It’s now commercially cultivated and available in Australian specialty grocers and farmers’ markets.

Maize (Zea mays), commonly known as corn, is a cereal grain first domesticated by Indigenous peoples in southern Mexico around 9,000 years ago. It has since become one of the three most important food crops globally, alongside wheat and rice. The plant produces large ears containing hundreds of kernels arranged in rows around a central cob.

Maize is extraordinarily versatile. It is eaten fresh as sweet corn, dried and ground into flour or meal for tortillas, polenta, and bread, processed into cornstarch, and used to produce corn oil, corn syrup, and ethanol. A significant portion of global maize production goes to animal feed. In Australia, maize is grown on a smaller scale than wheat but is an important crop in Queensland and northern New South Wales, used for both human food products and livestock feed.

Makrut Lime.

Malabar Spinach.

Malanga.

Mamey Sapote.

Mammey apple (Mammea americana), not to be confused with mamey sapote, is a tropical fruit tree native to the Caribbean, Central America, and northern South America. The fruit is round, roughly the size of a grapefruit or larger, with thick, leathery brown skin and fragrant, firm flesh that ranges from yellow to orange-pink.

The flesh has a sweet, aromatic flavour sometimes compared to apricot or passionfruit. It is eaten fresh, made into preserves, or used in drinks and desserts. The fruit is most commonly found in Caribbean and Latin American markets and remains relatively rare in Australia. The tree also produces a fragrant flower that has been used historically to make liqueurs.

The fresh fruit of the Mammy Apple tree (Mammea americana), also known as Mamey.

Mandarin Orange.

Mango (Mangifera indica) is a tropical stone fruit that originated in South and Southeast Asia, where it has been cultivated for thousands of years. There are hundreds of named varieties, ranging in size, shape, colour, and flavour from small, fibrous types to large, buttery-fleshed cultivars. The fruit has a single large flat seed surrounded by juicy flesh encased in smooth skin that ripens to shades of yellow, orange, red, or green.

Mango nectar is a popular ready-to-drink beverage made from mango purée rather than straight juice, giving it a thicker, smoother texture than most fruit juices. It’s widely enjoyed across Latin America, South Asia, and the Middle East, and has become a common fixture in Australian supermarket aisles.

The drink is typically sold in cans or cartons and served chilled. It works well on its own as a refreshing drink, or as a base for smoothies, cocktails, and mocktails. Mango lassi, while traditionally made from fresh fruit, is sometimes approximated using mango nectar as a shortcut.

Processed mango components, fats, and industrial ingredients used in manufacturing or specialized cooking.

Mangosteen.

Manila Clam.

Mantis Shrimp.

Solidified and granulated sugar derived from boiling down maple sap.

Pure maple syrup categorized by its various grades, colors, and regional sources.

Marama Bean.

Maras Pepper.

Standard and industrial-grade solid vegetable oil emulsions used as butter substitutes in cooking and baking.

Marigold in a culinary context typically refers to pot marigold (Calendula officinalis) rather than the ornamental Tagetes varieties common in gardens. Calendula is native to southern Europe and has been used in cooking and traditional remedies for centuries. The bright orange and yellow petals have a subtle, slightly peppery or bitter flavour.

Dried calendula petals have historically been called “poor man’s saffron” for their ability to impart a golden colour to foods, though the flavour is quite different. They are used in rice dishes, soups, salads, herbal teas, and as a garnish. Tagetes species, particularly Tagetes lucida (Mexican marigold), are also used in some cuisines. Marigold extract is also a significant commercial source of lutein, used as a natural food colourant.

Marionberry.

Marjoram.

Cooked potato dishes (mashed, boiled, baked) and technical potato derivatives like starch and flour.

Mashu is a common name used by some Indigenous peoples of North America for the starchy root (corm) of Claytonia lanceolata, a small wildflower also known as spring beauty or Indian potato. The plant grows in mountain meadows and moist woodlands across western North America, producing small, rounded underground corms.

The corms have been an important traditional food for Indigenous communities, eaten raw, boiled, or roasted. They have a mild, slightly sweet, starchy flavour sometimes compared to chestnuts or potatoes. Mashu is not commercially cultivated and remains a foraged food, gathered primarily by Indigenous communities maintaining traditional food practices.

Consolidates the generic mashu root entry with its specific raw regional preparation.

Mashua.

The mastic tree (Pistacia lentiscus) is a slow-growing evergreen shrub or small tree native to the Mediterranean region. It is closely related to the pistachio. While the tree grows across the Mediterranean, high-quality culinary mastic resin is almost exclusively produced on the Greek island of Chios, where a specific variety of the tree exudes resin in commercially viable quantities.

Mastic resin has been harvested and traded for thousands of years. It has a distinctive pine-like, slightly sweet flavour and is used in Middle Eastern and Greek cooking to flavour ice cream, puddings, breads, and beverages. It is also the original chewing gum — the word “masticate” derives from mastic. Outside its traditional regions, mastic is a specialty ingredient available from Greek and Middle Eastern grocers.

Matsutake.

A stable emulsion of oil, egg yolk, and an acid, serving as a primary condiment and base for dressings.

Meal replacement shakes are pre-mixed beverages formulated to provide a balanced combination of protein, carbohydrates, fats, vitamins, and minerals in a single serve. They’re designed to substitute for a regular meal, typically breakfast or lunch, and are marketed primarily for weight management or convenience.

These shakes are sold ready-to-drink in bottles or cartons and come in flavours like chocolate, vanilla, and strawberry. They’re popular with people looking for a quick, portion-controlled option when preparing a full meal isn’t practical. The high-protein versions, like this one, emphasise satiety — the idea being that the protein content helps you feel fuller for longer.

Meat and seafood seasonings are ready-made spice blends that take the guesswork out of flavouring proteins. They typically combine herbs like sage, thyme, and rosemary with garlic, onion, and pepper in proportions suited to complementing the natural flavour of chicken, beef, lamb, or fish.

These blends are a pantry staple for home cooks who want consistent results without measuring out individual spices. They work well as dry rubs, in marinades, or simply sprinkled on before roasting or grilling. While recipes vary between brands and styles, the goal is always the same: a balanced seasoning that enhances rather than masks the meat.

Meat alternatives are manufactured plant-based products that aim to replicate the taste, texture, and cooking behaviour of conventional meat. They are typically built on a base of soy protein, wheat gluten, pea protein, or a combination of these, and are shaped into mince, burgers, sausages, or other familiar formats.

These products have become increasingly common in Australian supermarkets, used both by people following vegetarian or vegan diets and by those simply looking to eat less meat. They can generally be cooked in the same way as their animal-based counterparts — fried, grilled, or added to sauces and stews.

Consolidates the canonical mature seed form and its technical dry variant into a single archetype.

Medlar.

General melon fruit category including specific cultivars like Charentais and Galia, along with processed forms such as frozen melon balls.

Menhaden are small, silvery fish belonging to the herring family. They swim in large schools along the Atlantic coast of North America and in the Gulf of Mexico. Unlike most fish that end up on dinner plates, menhaden are rarely eaten whole — they’re bony and strongly flavoured.

Their significance lies almost entirely in their oil. Menhaden oil is one of the most commercially important sources of omega-3 fatty acids used in supplements, animal feed, and industrial applications. The fish also play a critical ecological role as filter feeders, consuming vast quantities of algae and plankton, which helps maintain water quality in coastal ecosystems.

Menhaden fish oil is derived from the Atlantic menhaden, a small, oily schooling fish found along the eastern coast of North America. It is one of the most widely produced fish oils globally, valued for its high concentration of omega-3 fatty acids, particularly EPA and DHA.

The oil is used in dietary supplements, as an ingredient in processed foods, and in aquaculture feed. In its refined form it has a relatively mild flavour compared to other fish oils, though it is more commonly consumed in capsule form than used directly in cooking.

Meshima.

Mesquite refers to several species of thorny trees and shrubs in the genus Prosopis, native to the arid regions of the Americas. The trees produce long, bean-like pods that contain seeds surrounded by a sweet, starchy pulp. Indigenous peoples of North and Central America have relied on mesquite pods as a staple food for millennia.

The pods can be ground into flour (mesquite meal), which has a sweet, nutty, slightly caramel-like flavour. This flour is used in baking, as a thickener, or eaten as-is. Mesquite wood is also widely known as a flavouring agent for barbecue smoking, though the food product comes from the pods, not the wood.

Mexican Oregano.

Mexican Tarragon.

Mexican Vanilla.

Meyer Lemon.

Mibuna.

Microalgae are a diverse group of tiny photosynthetic organisms that grow in water. Unlike seaweed (macroalgae), individual microalgae are invisible to the naked eye, though large cultures appear as dense green, red, or golden liquids. Common species used in food production include Chlorella, Spirulina (technically a cyanobacterium), and Schizochytrium.

Different species are cultivated for different purposes. Some are grown for their high oil content, particularly DHA omega-3 fatty acids, providing a plant-based alternative to fish oil. Others are valued for pigments like astaxanthin, or as whole-cell nutritional supplements. Microalgae-derived DHA is increasingly used in infant formula, food fortification, and vegan supplements.

Microgreens.

Milk is a white liquid secreted by the mammary glands of female mammals. In the food system, the term almost always refers to cow’s milk, though milk from goats, sheep, buffalo, and camels is also consumed in various regions. It is one of humanity’s oldest farmed foods, with evidence of dairying stretching back over 8,000 years.

Milk is both consumed as a drink and used as the base ingredient for a vast range of dairy products — cheese, yoghurt, butter, cream, and ice cream among them. Its composition of water, fat, protein (primarily casein), and lactose (milk sugar) makes it unusually versatile in cooking and food manufacturing.

Solid chocolate containing cocoa solids, cocoa butter, sugar, and milk solids or powder.

Milkfish is a large, silvery fish widely farmed across Southeast Asia, particularly in the Philippines and Indonesia where it is a dietary staple. Its flesh is soft, moist, and mildly flavoured, with a richness that comes from its relatively high fat content compared to other white fish.

The main challenge with milkfish is its abundance of fine, forked bones, which run through the flesh in a pattern that makes them difficult to remove. This is why deboned milkfish is considered a premium product. When the bones are dealt with, the fish works well grilled, fried, braised, or added to soups and stews.

Groups specific fillet-cut variants and preparations, including aquacultured specimens.

Whole millet grain and processed forms like flour and puffed millet.

Minestrone is a hearty Italian-style vegetable soup built around whatever vegetables are on hand, combined with beans, pasta or rice, and a tomato base. The canned, ready-to-serve version offers a convenient take on this classic — thick, chunky, and requiring nothing more than heating.

Traditional minestrone varies hugely from region to region and kitchen to kitchen, but the canned version typically includes a mix of diced vegetables such as carrots, celery, zucchini, and green beans, along with kidney or borlotti beans and small pasta shapes. The broth is tomato-based and well-seasoned with herbs.

Mint.

Mirabelle Plum.

Miracle Fruit.

Mixed poultry products encompass a range of smallgoods and processed meats where chicken or other poultry is combined with beef, pork, or both. Vienna sausages, cocktail frankfurts, and similar canned or shelf-stable meat products are typical examples. These are pantry staples in many Australian households, often used as quick snacks, in lunchboxes, or sliced into simple meals.

These products have a smooth, finely ground texture and mild, salty flavour. They’re a familiar sight at children’s parties and in school lunches, and they also turn up in fried rice, pasta dishes, and as pizza toppings.

The canonical whole fruit preparation consisting of a blend of various berry varieties.

Mixed berry juice drinks are flavoured beverages that combine berry juice with water, sweeteners, and sometimes other fruit juices to create a lighter, sweeter drink than pure juice. They typically contain a modest percentage of actual fruit juice, with the balance made up of water, sugar or other sweeteners, and flavourings.

These drinks are popular with families and are commonly found in the long-life juice aisle of Australian supermarkets. They offer a berry flavour that’s more approachable and less tart than straight berry juice, making them a common lunchbox inclusion.

General preparations of whole, cut, or dried mixed fruits used as ingredients or snacks.

Mixed fruit and vegetable juice is a blended drink that combines juices from various fruits and vegetables into a single beverage, often with added vitamins and minerals. These products aim to deliver a broader range of plant-based flavours in one drink, with the fruit component typically softening the stronger taste of vegetable juices.

Common combinations include carrot, tomato, and beetroot juices blended with apple, orange, or berry juices. In Australia, these drinks are found in the chilled or long-life juice sections of supermarkets and are marketed as a convenient way to include more plant variety in your diet.

Mixed fruit and vegetable juice blends are 100% juice products that combine multiple fruit and vegetable juices into a single drink, fortified with vitamins A, C, and E. Unlike juice drinks that contain added water and sweeteners, these are made entirely from juice, offering a more concentrated flavour.

These blends typically feature a base of apple or grape juice for sweetness, combined with vegetable juices like carrot, tomato, or beetroot. The result is a drink that balances the earthiness of vegetables with the natural sweetness of fruit.

Mixed grain baby cereal is a finely milled, dry cereal made from a blend of grains such as rice, oat, wheat, and barley, fortified with iron and other essential nutrients. It’s one of the first solid foods introduced to Australian infants, typically from around six months of age.

The cereal is mixed with breast milk, formula, or water to create a smooth, easily swallowed porridge. As babies develop, the consistency can be made thicker. It provides a gentle introduction to grain-based foods and a convenient vehicle for the iron fortification that’s important during this stage of development.

A collection of various mixed leafy greens, including fresh bulk leaves and pre-packaged salad blends.

Various combinations of roasted nuts, including salted, unsalted, oil-roasted, and dry-roasted preparations with or without peanuts.

Mixed vegetable baby food is a cooked and pureed blend of vegetables designed for infants and young children. Junior-texture varieties have a slightly coarser consistency than first-stage purees, suited to babies who are progressing in their eating development, typically from around eight months onward.

Common vegetables in these blends include carrots, peas, corn, sweet potato, and beans, though the exact mix varies by product. The vegetables are chosen for their mild flavours and smooth pureeing qualities.

Frozen and canned mixed vegetables are a kitchen staple across Australia, offering a convenient and long-lasting way to keep a variety of vegetables on hand. Frozen blends typically include peas, corn, carrots, beans, and sometimes broccoli or cauliflower, while canned varieties tend to feature similar combinations.

These products are picked and processed at peak freshness, which helps preserve their quality. Frozen mixed vegetables in particular are a practical option for quick weeknight meals — they can be added directly to stir-fries, soups, casseroles, pies, and fried rice without thawing.

Mizuna.

Molasses is the dense, dark syrup left behind after sugar crystals are extracted from sugarcane juice. It has a strong, bittersweet flavour that ranges from mild and sweet in lighter grades to robust and slightly bitter in blackstrap varieties, which result from the final extraction.

In Australian cooking, molasses and treacle are used in baking — particularly in gingerbread, fruit cakes, and sticky puddings — and as a flavouring in sauces, marinades, and glazes. Molasses also has traditional uses in brewing and as a stock feed supplement in agriculture.

Monk Fruit.

Monkfish — also known as stargazer or goosefish depending on the species — is a bottom-dwelling fish with a distinctively ugly appearance but highly prized flesh. The edible portion comes almost entirely from the tail, which yields firm, boneless fillets with a dense, meaty texture often compared to lobster.

Monkfish is well suited to robust cooking methods. Its firm flesh holds together beautifully when roasted, grilled, pan-fried, or added to curries and stews. It doesn’t flake apart the way more delicate fish do, making it a good choice for skewers and dishes that require handling. In European cooking, monkfish tail is often roasted whole, wrapped in prosciutto or bacon.

Moose (Alces alces) are the largest species in the deer family, standing up to two metres tall at the shoulder. They inhabit boreal and mixed forests across northern North America, Scandinavia, and Russia, where they browse on leaves, bark, and aquatic vegetation.

Moose meat has been a critical food source for Indigenous peoples across the northern hemisphere for thousands of years and remains an important game meat today. The flavour is rich and somewhat similar to beef but leaner and with a distinctive gamey quality. Common cuts include steaks, roasts, and ground meat, with organ meats like liver also consumed.

Moose meat is a dark, lean game meat with a rich, slightly sweet flavour that sits somewhere between beef and venison. The moose is the largest species in the deer family, native to the boreal forests of North America, Scandinavia, and Russia, and the meat has been a traditional food source in these regions for thousands of years.

Moose meat is not commercially farmed on any significant scale, so virtually all moose meat comes from wild-harvested animals. The flavour and texture vary depending on the cut — steaks and roasts from the hindquarter are tender and well-suited to quick cooking, while tougher cuts from the shoulder benefit from slow braising. Moose mince is also popular for burgers, sausages, and meat sauces.

Organ meats from moose, specifically focusing on liver and its traditional preparations.

Moose stew is a staple of Alaska Native cuisine, built around chunks of wild moose meat slow-cooked until tender. It reflects a tradition of subsistence hunting where moose is one of the most important food sources for Indigenous communities across Alaska and northern Canada.

The stew is typically straightforward — moose meat simmered low and slow with whatever vegetables and seasonings are available. The long cooking time breaks down the lean, dense meat into something rich and deeply flavourful. Recipes vary between communities and families, but simplicity and respect for the ingredient are common threads.

Morels are a genus of edible fungi (Morchella) recognised by their unique ridged and pitted caps, which resemble a natural sponge or honeycomb. They fruit in spring across temperate forests in Europe, North America, and parts of Asia, often appearing after bushfires or in recently disturbed soils.

Morels have been gathered as a wild food for centuries and remain one of the most sought-after mushrooms in global cuisine. Their flavour is intensely earthy and nutty, deepening when dried. Because they are difficult to cultivate at scale, most morels reaching kitchens are still wild-harvested, making them seasonal and relatively expensive.

Fresh morel mushrooms are a seasonal delicacy with a distinctive pitted, honeycomb-textured cap and a hollow interior. They belong to the genus Morchella and are found across temperate forests worldwide. Their flavour is complex — earthy, woodsy, and faintly nutty — making them one of the most celebrated ingredients in fine dining.

Morels should always be cooked before eating. A simple sauté in butter with a pinch of salt is often all that’s needed, though they shine in cream sauces, risottos, and alongside roasted meats. Their hollow structure also makes them excellent for stuffing.

Moreton Bay Bug.

Moringa (Moringa oleifera), sometimes called the drumstick tree or horseradish tree, is a tropical plant native to the Indian subcontinent. Nearly every part of the tree is edible: the feathery leaves are eaten fresh or dried, the long seed pods (known as drumsticks) are a staple in South Indian cuisine, and the seeds can be pressed for oil or eaten when young.

The tree has spread across tropical and subtropical regions worldwide, thriving in arid and semi-arid conditions where many other crops struggle. It is a significant food source in parts of Africa, Southeast Asia, and Central America, valued for its ability to produce edible material year-round with minimal inputs.

Groups the nutrient-rich leaves of the Moringa tree, including raw and various cooked preparations.

Focuses on the long, slender immature seed pods of the Moringa tree, frequently referred to as drumsticks.

Morwong refers to several species of marine fish in the family Cheilodactylidae, found in the cooler temperate waters of southern Australia and New Zealand. The most commercially important species include jackass morwong and rubberlip morwong. They are bottom-dwelling fish that inhabit rocky reefs and are caught as part of mixed-species fisheries.

Morwong has firm, white flesh with a mild flavour, making it versatile in the kitchen. It is well-regarded in Australian fish markets, though it is less widely known than species like barramundi or snapper. The fish is sold as skin-on or skin-off fillets.

Morwong is a family of reef-dwelling fish found along the southern coast of Australia, from New South Wales around to Western Australia. The most commonly eaten species include rubberlip morwong and jackass morwong (also known as perch). They have firm, white to pale pink flesh with a mild, clean flavour.

Morwong fillets are versatile in the kitchen — they hold together well for pan-frying, grilling, and baking, and their firm texture makes them a good choice for fish curries and chowders. The flavour is subtle enough to pair with delicate sauces but robust enough to stand up to stronger seasonings.

Moth Bean.

Mountain Pepper.

The mountain yam tuber, encompassing raw and steamed regional variations from Hawaii.

Mud Crab.

Mugwort.

Mulberry.

Mullet.

Mulloway (Argyrosomus japonicus), also widely known as jewfish or jewel fish in Australia, is a large predatory fish found along the southern and eastern Australian coastline. It inhabits estuaries, coastal bays, and nearshore reefs, and can grow to well over a metre in length. The species is also found in South Africa, where it is called dusky kob.

Mulloway is highly regarded by both recreational and commercial fishers. Its flesh is firm, white, and mildly flavoured, with large flakes that hold together well during cooking. It suits grilling, pan-frying, and baking, and is a common choice at Australian fish-and-chip shops and seafood restaurants.

Mulloway — also known as jewfish or jewel — is one of Australia’s most prized eating fish. Found in estuaries, bays, and along ocean beaches from Queensland to Western Australia, it can grow to well over a metre in length. The flesh is pearly white, moist, and has a mild, buttery flavour with large, satisfying flakes.

Mulloway fillets are excellent pan-fried with crispy skin, baked whole, or used in fish tacos and ceviche. The mild flavour makes it approachable for those who prefer less fishy-tasting seafood. Smaller fish (often called school mulloway or school jewies) are considered the best eating size.

Multigrain baby cereal is a dry, powdered infant food made from a blend of whole grains — typically rice, oats, wheat, and barley. It’s designed to be mixed with breast milk, formula, or water to create a smooth, easily swallowed porridge. These cereals are fortified with iron and other nutrients important for infant development.

This type of cereal is commonly introduced as one of an infant’s first solid foods, usually from around six months of age. The multigrain variety offers broader flavour exposure and a more varied nutrient profile than single-grain alternatives. The texture can be adjusted from very smooth to slightly thicker as the baby develops.

Mung beans (Vigna radiata) are small, round, green-skinned legumes native to the Indian subcontinent. They are one of the most widely cultivated pulses in Asia, with a history of use spanning thousands of years across South Asian, East Asian, and Southeast Asian cuisines.

The beans are eaten in many forms: whole and cooked in curries or soups, split and hulled as moong dal, ground into flour for noodles and pancakes, or sprouted to produce the bean sprouts commonly found in stir-fries and salads. Mung bean starch is used to make glass noodles (cellophane noodles), a staple across East and Southeast Asia.

Mung bean noodles — commonly called glass noodles, cellophane noodles, or bean thread noodles — are made from pure mung bean starch. When dried they’re white and wiry; when cooked they turn translucent and slippery, with a pleasantly springy, chewy texture. They have almost no flavour of their own, which makes them excellent at absorbing the sauces and broths they’re cooked in.

These noodles are a staple across East and Southeast Asian cuisines. They appear in Chinese hot pots, Korean japchae, Thai glass noodle salads (yum woon sen), and Vietnamese spring rolls. They can be soaked in hot water until soft or briefly boiled, and they also hold up well in soups without turning mushy.

Mung bean sprouts are the most common type of bean sprout found in Australian supermarkets and Asian grocers. They’re the pale, crunchy shoots that emerge when whole mung beans are germinated in warm, dark, moist conditions for a few days. The result is a crisp, juicy sprout with a mild, slightly nutty flavour and a satisfying crunch.

Bean sprouts are ubiquitous in Asian cooking — tossed into stir-fries at the last moment, piled onto pho and laksa, added to pad Thai, or used raw in Vietnamese rice paper rolls. They cook in seconds and are best when still crunchy. Overcooking makes them limp and watery.

Mung beans are small, olive-green pulses native to South and Southeast Asia, where they’ve been cultivated for thousands of years. They’re one of the most versatile legumes in the kitchen — eaten whole in soups and curries, split into dal, ground into flour for crepes and sweets, sprouted for bean sprouts, or processed into starch for glass noodles.

Whole dried mung beans cook relatively quickly compared to other dried legumes, especially if soaked first. They have a mild, slightly sweet, starchy flavour that works in both savoury and sweet dishes. In Indian cooking, they’re used for moong dal and kitchari. In Chinese and Southeast Asian cooking, sweetened mung bean paste appears in desserts, buns, and mooncakes.

Murray Cod.

Murumuru palm (Astrocaryum murumuru) is a spiny palm species native to the floodplain forests of the Amazon basin in Brazil. It produces clusters of small fruits containing hard seeds that are rich in fatty acids. The fat extracted from these seeds — murumuru butter — is a solid, white fat with properties similar to cocoa butter.

The palm is an important part of traditional Amazonian food systems, where the fruit pulp and seed fat have long been consumed by local communities. In the global market, murumuru butter is primarily known as a cosmetic ingredient, used in hair and skin care products for its moisturising properties. Its food applications include use as a specialty fat in confectionery and as a cocoa butter alternative.

In this context, mushroom refers to the common cultivated mushroom (Agaricus bisporus) as a processed ingredient — used in soups, sauces, gravies, and other prepared food products. This is the same species sold fresh as white button, cup, and flat mushrooms, or as brown varieties marketed as Swiss brown or cremini.

Agaricus bisporus is the most widely cultivated mushroom in the world, accounting for the majority of global mushroom production. Its mild, savoury flavour and ability to absorb surrounding flavours make it a versatile ingredient in processed foods. Mushroom is used in powdered, dried, canned, and paste forms across a wide range of commercial food products.

Mushroom barley soup is a hearty, warming soup that pairs earthy mushrooms with pearl barley in a rich broth. It’s a classic comfort food combination found across many Eastern European and American cooking traditions.

The condensed canned version is designed to be diluted with water or milk before heating, roughly doubling the volume. This makes it a convenient pantry staple for quick meals. The barley gives the soup a satisfying thickness and chewy texture, while the mushrooms provide depth of flavour.

Mushroom beef soup brings together the earthy flavour of mushrooms with the savoury richness of beef stock. The combination gives a fuller, meatier character than a purely mushroom-based soup, making it a satisfying option for cooler weather.

As a condensed product, it needs to be mixed with an equal amount of water or milk before heating. The condensed format makes it a compact pantry item with a long shelf life.

Liquid mushroom bases and sauces used to impart earthy umami notes to soups, stews, and roasted dishes.

Muskrat is a wild game meat from the muskrat, a semi-aquatic rodent found throughout North America. The meat is dark, lean, and fine-grained, with a flavour often compared to rabbit or dark poultry meat, though with a slightly more distinctive, gamey character.

Muskrat has a long history as a food source in North American Indigenous and rural communities, particularly in the Great Lakes and Mississippi Delta regions. It is traditionally prepared by slow-braising or stewing to tenderise the lean muscle.

Mussel.

Mustard refers to several species in the Brassica and Sinapis genera, cultivated primarily for their small, round seeds which produce the sharp, pungent flavour associated with mustard condiments. The three main types are yellow (or white) mustard, brown mustard, and black mustard, each varying in heat intensity and culinary use.

Mustard seeds are ground, mixed with liquid, and sometimes combined with vinegar, wine, or other flavourings to produce prepared mustard — a condiment used worldwide. Whole or crushed seeds are also used as a spice in Indian, European, and African cooking. Beyond the seeds, mustard leaves are eaten as a leafy green vegetable in many cuisines, and mustard oil pressed from the seeds is a primary cooking fat in parts of South Asia.

Mustard cabbage, also known as gai choy or Chinese mustard cabbage, is a leafy green vegetable in the brassica family. It has broad, slightly ruffled leaves on thick, crunchy stems, with a flavour that sits somewhere between cabbage and mustard greens — mildly peppery when raw, mellowing with cooking.

It is a staple in Chinese, Vietnamese, and Southeast Asian cooking, commonly used in stir-fries, soups, and braised dishes. In Australia, it’s readily available at Asian grocery stores and increasingly at farmers’ markets. It’s also the vegetable traditionally pickled to make the sour mustard greens used in many Chinese dishes.

Mustard greens are the large, broad leaves of the mustard plant, known for their distinctive peppery, slightly bitter flavour that becomes milder and more mellow when cooked. They come in several varieties, from flat-leaved to frilly, and in colours ranging from bright green to deep purple-red.

In Australian cooking, mustard greens are most commonly found at Asian grocers and farmers’ markets. They are popular in Southern American, Indian, Chinese, Japanese, and Korean cuisines — braised low and slow with pork in the American South, stir-fried with garlic in Chinese cooking, or pickled into takana for Japanese rice dishes.

A pungent, flavorful oil extracted from mustard seeds, widely used in South Asian cuisine.

Whole or ground seeds of the mustard plant used as a spice and the base for prepared mustards.

Mustard spinach, also called tendergreen or komatsuna, is a leafy green brassica that combines the hardiness of mustard greens with the mild, approachable flavour of spinach. The leaves are smooth, dark green, and tender, with a subtle peppery note that is much gentler than true mustard greens.

It is a versatile cooking green that works anywhere you might use spinach or bok choy — in stir-fries, soups, steamed as a side dish, or wilted into pasta and grain bowls. It’s particularly popular in Japanese and Chinese home cooking, where it’s valued for its quick cooking time and pleasant texture.

Meat from mature sheep, often used in slow-cooked stews and traditional Navajo cuisine.

Mycoprotein meat substitutes are plant-based alternatives produced from a specific fungus rather than soy or wheat. The resulting product has a fibrous, meat-like texture that sets it apart from other meat alternatives, making it popular in dishes like bolognese, stir-fries, and pies.

Brands like Quorn have made mycoprotein widely available in Australian supermarkets. The products come in various forms designed to replace common meat cuts — mince, sausages, schnitzels, and nuggets. They absorb flavours well and hold their texture during cooking, making them a practical swap in everyday meals.

Nameko is a small mushroom recognised by its glossy, sticky cap that ranges from golden to chestnut brown. The gelatinous coating gives it a silky texture that thickens soups and sauces naturally. It grows in clusters on hardwood stumps and logs in temperate forests across East Asia and parts of North America.

Nameko has been a staple of Japanese cuisine for centuries, appearing most often in miso soup and nabemono (hot pot) dishes. Its mild, nutty flavour and distinctive texture set it apart from more common button or shiitake mushrooms. Outside Japan, it has gained a modest following among chefs looking for interesting mushroom varieties.

Groups the primary whole fruit with its common preserved forms including canned and frozen variants.

Napa cabbage — also called wombok in Australia — is an oblong-shaped cabbage with tightly packed, crinkled leaves. It’s much milder and more tender than common round cabbage, with a subtle sweetness and a satisfying crunch when raw. The thick white ribs hold up well to cooking, while the thinner green leaf portions wilt down quickly.

Wombok is a cornerstone of East Asian cuisine. It’s the primary ingredient in Korean kimchi, essential in Chinese stir-fries and hot pots, and commonly used in Japanese gyoza fillings. In Australia, it’s a staple in Asian cooking and has become increasingly popular in everyday salads and slaws.

The whole Naranjilla (lulo) fruit and its primary processed pulp variants.

Asian Pear.

Nashi Pear.

Nassau Grouper.

Navy beans are small, dense, white beans that cook down to a soft, creamy consistency. They have a mild, slightly nutty flavour that absorbs surrounding seasonings well, making them one of the most versatile dried beans in the kitchen. The name comes from their long history as a staple food in the United States Navy.

Navy beans belong to the common bean species (Phaseolus vulgaris), which originated in the Americas and was domesticated thousands of years ago. They are the bean most associated with baked beans — including the tinned baked beans familiar to Australians — and are also used in soups, stews, cassoulets, and purées.

Navy bean sprouts are produced by soaking and germinating dried navy beans until they develop small tails. Sprouting softens the beans slightly and begins to break down their starches, giving them a fresher, lighter character than the dried seeds. The sprouts are tender-crisp with a mild, slightly sweet bean flavour.

Sprouted beans can be eaten raw in salads, added to stir-fries, or lightly steamed. They offer a different texture and flavour profile to the more familiar mung bean sprouts commonly found in Asian cooking — navy bean sprouts are denser and more substantial.

Navy beans are the small white beans most Australians know from tinned baked beans. They’re one of the most widely consumed legumes in the world, prized for their mild flavour, smooth texture, and ability to absorb the flavours of whatever they’re cooked with. When properly cooked, they become creamy and tender without losing their shape.

Beyond baked beans, navy beans are excellent in soups, casseroles, and slow-cooked dishes. They’re a staple of American Boston baked beans, French cassoulet, and Italian pasta e fagioli. They also work well mashed into dips or blended into smooth, creamy soups.

Nectarine.

Negro Pepper.

New Zealand Spinach.

Nigella seeds (Nigella sativa), sometimes called black cumin or kalonji, are small, angular, matte-black seeds with a complex flavour — slightly bitter and peppery, with notes of onion, oregano, and black pepper. They should not be confused with black sesame seeds, which they superficially resemble, or with true cumin.

The plant is native to the Mediterranean and Western Asia and has been used as a spice and traditional remedy for thousands of years. Nigella seeds are sprinkled on Turkish flatbreads, folded into Indian naan, used in Bengali five-spice blends (panch phoron), and scattered over Middle Eastern pastries and pickles.

Noni.

Groups raw and cooked prickly pear cactus pads, commonly known as nopales, into a single culinary archetype.

Nori.

The northern lobster — also known as American or Maine lobster — is the classic clawed lobster of the North Atlantic. It’s a large crustacean that can weigh several kilograms, distinguished from warm-water spiny lobsters (which Australians may be more familiar with) by its prominent, meaty front claws. The meat is sweet, tender, and rich, particularly from the tail and claws.

Northern lobster is considered one of the finest seafood items in the world. It’s traditionally boiled or steamed whole and served with drawn butter, but the meat is equally prized in bisques, rolls, thermidor, and pasta dishes. The shells make an excellent stock base.

Northern pike is a predatory freshwater fish found across the Northern Hemisphere, known for its elongated body, toothy snout, and aggressive feeding habits. The flesh is white, firm, and mild-tasting — well-regarded in European cuisine despite the challenge of its many Y-shaped pin bones, which require careful filleting or specific cutting techniques to manage.

In Scandinavian and Eastern European cooking, pike is traditionally used in quenelles (light fish dumplings), fish cakes, and the classic Jewish gefilte fish. Mincing or grinding the flesh is a common approach that neatly solves the bone problem. Larger fillets can also be baked, pan-fried, or poached once properly deboned.

Specific liver parts and traditional organ meat preparations.

Nut snack bars are compact, portable bars where mixed nuts make up the majority of the product — typically more than 55% by weight. The nuts are pressed together with a binding agent such as honey, glucose syrup, or rice malt syrup, and sometimes include seeds, dried fruit, or a light chocolate drizzle. The texture is crunchy and dense, with the flavour driven primarily by the nuts themselves.

These bars have become a popular on-the-go snack in Australia, positioned between confectionery and health food. Brands like Carmans, Be Natural, and supermarket own-labels offer a wide range. They’re a common lunchbox, hiking, and desk-drawer item.

The inner kernel of the Myristica fruit, including whole seeds, ground spice, and extracted fats.

General nutritional supplements and specialized meal replacements, including those formulated for specific health requirements such as diabetes management.

Nutritional shake mixes are powdered drink products formulated with protein concentrate and a blend of other ingredients to create a convenient, nutrient-dense beverage. They’re typically mixed with water or milk and consumed as a meal supplement or post-exercise recovery drink.

In Australia, these products sit alongside protein powders and meal replacement shakes in the sports nutrition and health food aisles. They appeal to people looking for a quick protein hit — whether for fitness goals, busy schedules, or increased nutritional needs.

Oaks (Quercus species) are large, long-lived hardwood trees found across the Northern Hemisphere. While best known for their timber, oaks also produce edible seeds — acorns — that have been a food source for humans for thousands of years. Acorns are starchy and nutritious but contain bitter tannins that must be leached out before eating.

For many Indigenous peoples of North America, acorns were a dietary staple, ground into flour or meal and processed into porridge, bread, and other foods. Different oak species produce acorns with varying levels of tannin; white oaks tend to be milder than red oaks. The practice of acorn processing represents sophisticated traditional food knowledge.

Oakleaf Lettuce.

Oats (Avena sativa) are a cereal grain that thrives in cool, wet conditions where wheat and barley struggle. The grain has a mild, slightly nutty flavour and a distinctive chewy texture. Unlike most cereals, oats retain their bran and germ even after processing, which is why rolled oats and steel-cut oats are considered whole grains.

Oats have been cultivated in Europe for over two thousand years, originally as a secondary crop that grew as a weed among wheat and barley. They became a staple food in Scotland, Ireland, and Scandinavia — regions where the climate suits them well. Porridge, oatcakes, muesli, and granola are traditional oat foods.

Fluid beverages and milk alternatives derived from oats.

Oatmeal biscuits are a classic baked treat built around rolled oats, which give them their characteristic chewy texture and slightly nutty flavour. They’re one of those simple biscuits that feel a bit more wholesome than a plain sugar cookie, thanks to the visible oats in every bite.

In Australia, oat biscuits are a lunchbox and morning-tea staple, closely related to the beloved Anzac biscuit. Commercial versions come in many variations — plain, with sultanas, chocolate chips, or spices like cinnamon. They range from soft and chewy to crisp and crunchy depending on the recipe.

Oca.

Ocean pout is a bottom-dwelling fish native to the cold waters of the North Atlantic, from Labrador down to the mid-Atlantic coast of North America. It has firm, white flesh with a mild flavour, similar in character to other lean white fish.

It’s not a common fish in Australian markets, as it’s primarily caught in North American waters. Where available, it can be prepared in much the same way as other firm white fish — pan-fried, baked, or used in chowders and fish pies.

Ocean trout is the Australian market name for large rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) raised in marine or estuarine environments. It has rich, pink-orange flesh with a higher fat content than Atlantic salmon, giving it a buttery texture and pronounced flavour. The flesh colour comes from astaxanthin in the feed, the same pigment found in wild salmon diets.

Ocean trout is primarily an Australian and New Zealand product. The name distinguishes farmed, sea-raised trout from the smaller freshwater rainbow trout. It has become a popular alternative to Atlantic salmon in Australian restaurants and fishmongers, valued for its richness in sashimi, smoking, and grilling.

Ocean trout is one of Australia’s finest farmed fish, prized for its rich, coral-pink flesh and buttery texture. It’s closely related to Atlantic salmon but tends to have a slightly milder, more delicate flavour with a higher fat content that keeps it moist during cooking.

In Australian fish shops and supermarkets, ocean trout fillets are a popular choice for pan-frying, baking, grilling, or serving raw as sashimi. The fish has become a staple on restaurant menus across the country, particularly in Tasmania where much of the farming takes place.

Octopus is a versatile seafood that’s become increasingly popular in Australian cooking, turning up on everything from pub menus to fine dining plates. When cooked well, the flesh is tender with a mild, slightly sweet, briny flavour and a satisfying texture.

The key to good octopus is getting the texture right — it needs either very quick cooking (grilling thin tentacles over high heat) or slow braising to break down the muscle fibres. Anything in between tends to produce a rubbery result. In Australia, chargrilled octopus with lemon and olive oil is a classic, drawing on Greek and Mediterranean traditions.

Ohelo berries are small, round fruits that grow wild on volcanic slopes in Hawaii, particularly around Kilauea and Mauna Kea. They’re a member of the heath family, closely related to cranberries and blueberries, with a tart, slightly sweet flavour.

These berries are not commercially cultivated or widely available outside Hawaii. They’re traditionally gathered wild and eaten fresh, used in jams, or baked into pies and other desserts. In Hawaiian tradition, the berries are associated with the volcano goddess Pele.

The oil palm (Elaeis guineensis) is a tropical tree originally from West Africa, now cultivated on a massive scale across Southeast Asia, particularly in Indonesia and Malaysia. It produces dense bunches of small fruits, each containing an oily flesh (mesocarp) surrounding a hard kernel — both of which yield distinct oils.

Palm oil is the world’s most produced vegetable oil, found in roughly half of all packaged supermarket products — from cooking oils and margarine to biscuits, ice cream, soap, and cosmetics. Palm kernel oil, extracted from the seed, is used mainly in processed foods and industrial applications.

Okra.

The olive (Olea europaea) is one of the oldest cultivated fruit trees, with evidence of olive farming stretching back at least 6,000 years in the eastern Mediterranean. The small oval fruits are too bitter to eat straight from the tree and must be cured or pressed before consumption.

Olives and olive oil are foundational to Mediterranean cuisines and have spread to every temperate and subtropical growing region worldwide. Australia has a growing olive industry, particularly in South Australia, Victoria, and Western Australia, producing both table olives and extra virgin olive oil.

Oils extracted from the olive fruit, ranging from extra virgin grades to refined and infused varieties.

Whole olives for consumption, including specific cultivars, cured, and stuffed preparations.

Chicken eggs specifically produced to contain higher levels of omega-3 fatty acids for enhanced nutritional value.

Onions are a kitchen staple used as a flavour base in nearly every cuisine. Raw, they add sharp bite to salads and sandwiches; cooked low and slow, they turn sweet and silky, forming the backbone of soups, curries, stews, and sauces. Brown onions are the everyday workhorse in Australian cooking, while red onions are favoured raw for their milder heat and white onions appear in Mexican and Asian dishes.

Beyond the common brown, red, and white varieties, this category includes spring onions, shallots (sometimes called eschalots in Australia), and pickling onions. Each has a slightly different intensity and sweetness, but all share the characteristic layered structure and volatile compounds that make your eyes water when cutting.

Oolong tea occupies the broad middle ground of the tea spectrum. Depending on how far the leaves are oxidised — anywhere from about 15% to 85% — an oolong can taste light and floral like a green tea or dark and toasty like a black tea, with many stopping at a sweet, creamy, or fruity midpoint.

Classic oolongs come from China’s Fujian and Guangdong provinces and from Taiwan, where high-mountain varieties are especially prized. The tea is traditionally brewed gongfu-style in small vessels with short, repeated steepings, though it works perfectly well in a standard teapot or mug.

Opah.

Consolidates raw opossum muscle meat with its common roasted preparation.

Orache.

The orange (Citrus × sinensis) is the world’s most widely grown citrus fruit and one of the most popular fruits overall. It originated as a hybrid between the pomelo and the mandarin in Southeast Asia and was spread globally through trade over centuries.

Oranges are consumed fresh, juiced, and as flavouring in countless food products. The peel is used for zest, marmalade, and essential oil extraction. Orange blossom water, distilled from the flowers, is used in Middle Eastern and North African cooking. Even the dried peel finds use in teas and spice blends.

Orange confections in this category include sherbet (sometimes spelled sorbet in other markets, though they differ), frozen orange desserts, and similar icy sweets that combine orange flavour with sugar and a touch of milk or cream. The result sits between a sorbet and an ice cream — lighter than ice cream but creamier than a pure fruit ice.

In Australia, these products appear as frozen desserts, orange creams, and sherbet-style treats, often found alongside ice cream in the freezer aisle. They’re a popular warm-weather dessert and a lighter alternative when full ice cream feels too rich.

Orange drinks and blends are the broad category of beverages that contain some orange juice but are diluted with water, sweetened, or blended with other fruit juices. They range from “juice drinks” with 25–50% juice content to flavoured waters with just a splash of orange, and include orange cordials, breakfast drinks, and multi-fruit blends where orange is the lead flavour.

In Australia, labelling laws distinguish clearly between “juice” (100% fruit) and “juice drink” or “fruit drink” (diluted), so the packaging will indicate what you’re getting. These products are generally cheaper and sweeter than pure juice, and are often fortified with vitamin C.

Orange juice for babies is a gently processed, diluted product designed to be appropriate for infants being introduced to new flavours. It is typically pasteurised to ensure safety and may be diluted to reduce acidity compared with standard orange juice.

In Australia, baby food products are subject to strict food standards under the FSANZ Food Standards Code, which limits additives and requires clear labelling of ingredients. These juices usually contain no added sugar, preservatives, or artificial flavours.

Oranges are one of the world’s most popular fruits, valued for their refreshing sweetness, generous juice, and versatility. In Australia, the main varieties include navels (the classic eating orange, seedless with an easy-to-peel skin), Valencias (thinner-skinned, juicier, and the preferred variety for squeezing), and blood oranges (with their distinctive crimson flesh and berry-like sweetness).

Australian oranges are in season from roughly May through to November for navels and November through to April for Valencias, meaning domestic fruit is available most of the year. The Riverina in New South Wales, the Riverland in South Australia, and Sunraysia in Victoria are the major growing regions.

Commercial orange juice is one of the most consumed beverages in Australia, available in several forms: freshly squeezed and chilled (sold in the refrigerated section with a short shelf life), reconstituted from concentrate (where water is added back to previously concentrated juice), and long-life or UHT-treated (shelf-stable in cartons or bottles).

Flavour and quality vary significantly across these formats. Freshly squeezed juice has the brightest, most complex flavour but deteriorates quickly. Reconstituted juice is more consistent and affordable. Some premium brands use a “not from concentrate” process where juice is flash-pasteurised and stored chilled, aiming to split the difference.

Orange peel is the fragrant outer layer of the fruit, packed with essential oils that carry a more concentrated, more complex orange flavour than the juice alone. The thin outermost layer (the zest) is the most prized in cooking, adding bright citrus punch to cakes, biscuits, sauces, and salads without any of the bitterness found in the white pith beneath.

In Australian kitchens, orange peel appears as finely grated zest, as strips in marmalade, as candied peel in Christmas cakes and panforte, and as dried peel in spice blends and teas. It’s also used in cocktails — a twist of orange peel over an old fashioned or a negroni releases aromatic oils across the surface of the drink.

Orange roughy is a deep-water fish found in the cold waters of the southern oceans, including off the coasts of Australia and New Zealand. Its flesh is firm, moist, and very mild — almost buttery — making it popular with people who prefer a less “fishy” tasting seafood. It holds together well during cooking and suits baking, pan-frying, grilling, and steaming.

The fish gained enormous popularity in Australia through the 1980s and 1990s, but its slow reproduction and extreme longevity (individuals can live over 150 years) made it highly vulnerable to overfishing. Stocks were severely depleted, and strict catch limits have been in place for decades. Some fisheries have since recovered enough to allow limited, sustainably managed harvesting.

Oregano is one of the defining herbs of the Mediterranean kitchen, with a bold, warm flavour that stands up to cooking far better than most fresh herbs. It’s indispensable in Greek salads, Italian tomato sauces, pizza, lamb dishes, and roasted vegetables. Unlike basil or parsley, oregano actually intensifies in flavour when dried, which is why both fresh and dried forms are pantry staples.

Fresh oregano has a brighter, more peppery bite than its dried counterpart, and works beautifully torn over salads, stirred into dressings, or added to marinades. It pairs naturally with olive oil, lemon, garlic, tomatoes, and grilled meats — the building blocks of the food many Australians grew up eating.

Oregon Black Truffle.

Oro Blanco.

The osetra sturgeon (Acipenser gueldenstaedtii), also spelled oscietra or ossietra, is a large freshwater and brackish-water fish native to the Caspian Sea, Black Sea, and their tributary rivers. It is best known as the source of osetra caviar — considered one of the finest and most expensive caviars in the world.

Osetra caviar is characterised by medium-sized eggs that range in colour from dark brown to golden, with a rich, nutty flavour that distinguishes it from other caviar types. The golden eggs from older fish (sometimes marketed as “Imperial” caviar) are particularly prized.

Ostrich.

The ostrich fern (Matteuccia struthiopteris) is a tall, graceful fern native to temperate regions of North America, Europe, and Asia. It gets its common name from its fronds, which resemble ostrich plumes. The plant is valued culinarily for its fiddleheads — the tightly curled young fronds harvested in early spring before they unfurl.

Fiddleheads have a brief seasonal window of just a few weeks, making them a celebrated spring delicacy in eastern Canada and the northeastern United States. Their flavour is often described as grassy and vegetal, somewhere between asparagus and green beans, with a slightly nutty undertone.

Oubli (Pentadiplandra brazzeana) is a climbing plant native to the tropical forests of Central and West Africa. Its small red berries contain brazzein, a protein that is roughly 500 to 2,000 times sweeter than sugar by weight, making it one of the sweetest naturally occurring substances known.

The plant’s name comes from a French word meaning “forgotten,” reflecting its obscurity outside its native range. Local communities in Cameroon, Gabon, and the Democratic Republic of Congo have long eaten the berries as a sweet forest snack. The discovery of brazzein has attracted interest from food scientists exploring natural alternatives to artificial sweeteners.

Oyster.

Oyster mushrooms are one of the most widely cultivated mushrooms in the world, named for their resemblance to an opened oyster shell. They grow in overlapping clusters and range in colour from pale grey to cream, sometimes with hints of pink or yellow depending on the variety.

Their mild, slightly anise-like flavour and tender texture make them versatile in the kitchen. They work well in stir-fries, pasta dishes, soups, and as a meat substitute in vegetarian cooking, where their meaty texture holds up nicely. Unlike some mushrooms, the stems are edible though they can be a little tougher than the caps.

Raw oysters and oyster-based stews.

Pacific Bluefin Tuna.

Groups raw and cooked preparations of Pacific cod flesh into a single canonical culinary entry.

Consolidates Pacific Halibut flesh in raw and cooked forms, including traditional regional preparations.

Covers the whole fish and fillets of Pacific herring in various preparation states, including raw, cooked, and preserved forms.

Groups primary and technical records for Pacific herring eggs (roe) used as a distinct culinary ingredient.

A specialized traditional product where herring roe is naturally deposited and harvested on kelp fronds.

Consolidates raw and cooked preparations of Pacific mackerel and associated mixed jack mackerel species.

A grouping of Pacific oyster entries covering whole, raw, and cooked preparations.

Pacific rockfish is a broad term covering dozens of related species found along the western coast of North America, from Alaska to Baja California. Despite the name, they’re not related to the rock cod or rock flathead found in Australian waters. They’re slow-growing, long-lived reef fish — some species can live over a century.

The flesh is lean, white, and mildly flavoured with a moderately firm texture that holds up well to most cooking methods. Rockfish fillets are good baked, grilled, pan-fried, or used in tacos and chowders. The flavour is clean and unassertive, making it a reliable choice for dishes where the fish plays a supporting role alongside bolder ingredients.

Includes whole fresh Pacific sardines and common processed forms like canned preparations.

The American paddlefish (Polyodon spathula) is a distinctive freshwater fish with a long, paddle-shaped snout, found in the Mississippi River basin and surrounding waterways. It’s one of only two living paddlefish species — the other, the Chinese paddlefish, was declared extinct in 2020.

Paddlefish are among the oldest surviving fish lineages, with a fossil record stretching back over 300 million years. They’re filter feeders, swimming with their mouths open to strain zooplankton from the water, which is unusual for a fish that can grow over 2 metres long.

Paddy Straw Mushroom.

Padron Pepper.

Pak Choi.

The oil palm (Elaeis guineensis) is a tropical tree native to West Africa, now cultivated across equatorial regions worldwide. Its fruit produces two distinct oils: palm oil from the flesh and palm kernel oil from the seed. Together, these make palm the single largest source of vegetable oil on Earth, found in roughly half of all packaged products in a typical supermarket.

Palm oil’s dominance comes from the tree’s extraordinary productivity — oil palms produce far more oil per hectare than any other oilseed crop. This efficiency is also what makes the crop’s environmental story complicated: it’s the most land-efficient oil, but massive demand has driven extensive deforestation in Southeast Asia, particularly in Indonesia and Malaysia.

Oils extracted from the seed (kernel) of the palm fruit, widely used in industrial confectionery, coatings, and non-dairy whipped toppings.

Oils derived from the fleshy mesocarp of the oil palm fruit, including unrefined red oils and processed shortenings.

Palm-based industrial blends are speciality fats formulated from a mix of palm oil and palm kernel oil. They are engineered to have specific melting points and textures that make them suitable as filling fats in confectionery, biscuits, and other processed foods.

These fats are non-hydrogenated, meaning they achieve their solid-at-room-temperature properties through blending and fractionation rather than hydrogenation. This avoids the creation of trans fats. They are rarely purchased by home cooks and are instead used as ingredients in manufactured food products.

The palmyra palm (Borassus flabellifer) is a large fan palm native to South and Southeast Asia, deeply embedded in the cultures of southern India, Sri Lanka, Myanmar, and Cambodia. It’s sometimes called the toddy palm, referring to the fermented drink made from its sap.

The tree is valued primarily for its sap, which flows from cut flower stalks and is collected in pots. Fresh sap is mildly sweet and can be drunk as-is, fermented into toddy (an alcoholic drink), or boiled down into palm sugar and jaggery. Palm sugar from palmyra and related species is a traditional sweetener across much of Asia and is increasingly available in Australian specialty stores.

Pandan (Pandanus amaryllifolius) is a tropical plant prized for its aromatic leaves, which are a foundational flavouring in the cuisines of Southeast Asia. The leaves impart a sweet, floral, slightly nutty aroma that’s sometimes compared to vanilla, though the flavour profile is quite different.

In cooking, pandan leaves are used whole (tied in knots and simmered in rice, curries, or desserts), blended into paste for cakes and sweets, or processed into extract. Pandan is to Southeast Asian baking what vanilla is to Western baking — it appears in countless desserts, from Malaysian kuih to Thai coconut puddings to Filipino biko.

Pangasius.

Papad (also known as papadum or papadam) is a thin, disc-shaped wafer that puffs up and turns crispy when cooked. It is a staple accompaniment to Indian meals and is familiar to most Australians through Indian restaurants, where it is often served with chutneys as a starter.

Made primarily from black gram (urad dal) flour, papad may also include seasonings such as black pepper, cumin, chilli, or garlic. It can be deep-fried for a rich, bubbly texture, dry-roasted over an open flame, or microwaved for a lighter result.

Papaya (Carica papaya) is a fast-growing tropical fruit tree native to Central America, now cultivated throughout the tropics and subtropics. The fruit is large and pear-shaped, with bright orange or red flesh when ripe, containing a central cavity filled with small black seeds.

Ripe papaya is eaten fresh as a breakfast fruit, in fruit salads, or blended into smoothies. Green (unripe) papaya is used as a vegetable, most famously in Thai green papaya salad (som tam). The fruit also contains papain, a protein-digesting enzyme used commercially as a meat tenderiser and in digestive supplements.

Papaya nectar is a smooth, thick fruit drink made from papaya purée blended with water and sugar. It has a lush tropical flavour that is sweet and mildly perfumed, characteristic of ripe papaya. Unlike juice, nectar retains some of the fruit’s pulp, giving it a heavier, more velvety texture.

It is popular across Latin America and parts of Asia as a refreshing drink, served chilled on its own or used as a base for cocktails and smoothies. The canned format gives it a long shelf life without refrigeration.

Paprika is a versatile spice ground from dried capsicum peppers. Its flavour and heat level vary widely depending on the pepper varieties used and the production method. Sweet paprika is mild and fruity, hot paprika carries a noticeable kick, and smoked paprika (pimentón) has a deep, smoky character from being dried over wood fires.

Paprika is essential in Hungarian cuisine — it is the defining ingredient in goulash — and is widely used in Spanish, Portuguese, and Middle Eastern cooking. It adds both colour and flavour, turning dishes a warm red-orange. It works well in stews, rubs, marinades, roasted vegetables, and rice dishes.

Paprika peppers are specific cultivars of Capsicum annuum selected for their flavour, colour, and low heat when dried and ground. The resulting spice — paprika — ranges from sweet and mild to moderately hot, depending on the variety and whether the seeds and internal membranes are included.

Paprika is central to Hungarian cuisine, where it defines dishes like goulash and chicken paprikash, and it’s also fundamental to Spanish cooking (pimentón). The spice provides colour as much as flavour — it’s responsible for the characteristic red of many sausages, rubs, and stews. Smoked paprika, produced by drying the peppers over wood fires, has become particularly popular in recent years.

Parasol Mushroom.

Parsley (Petroselinum crispum) is one of the most commonly used herbs in Western cooking, native to the central and eastern Mediterranean. Two main types are grown: flat-leaf (Italian) parsley, which has a stronger flavour and is preferred for cooking, and curly parsley, which is milder and traditionally used as a garnish.

Despite its reputation as a mere garnish, parsley is a serious culinary ingredient. It’s a key component of bouquet garni, tabbouleh, chimichurri, gremolata, and countless sauces and salads. Its clean, slightly peppery flavour brightens dishes without dominating them, which is why it appears across so many cuisines.

Parsnip.

Partridge.

Passion Fruit.

Various forms of unleavened dough made from wheat flour, including Italian-style pasta shapes, Asian noodles, and semolina-based couscous.

Canonical entry for the Patagonian scallop, grouping the raw adductor muscle with commercial frozen wild-caught bay scallop preparations.

Consolidates various commercial forms and flesh preparations of Patagonian toothfish, including those marketed as Chilean sea bass.

Pattypan Squash.

The pea (Pisum sativum) is a legume that has been cultivated for thousands of years, with archaeological evidence of pea farming dating back to the Neolithic period in the Near East. It’s one of humanity’s oldest food crops and remains one of the most widely grown.

Several distinct types are eaten: garden peas (shelled from their pods and eaten as green peas), snow peas (eaten whole with flat, tender pods), sugar snap peas (eaten whole with plump, crunchy pods), and dried peas (mature seeds, split or whole, used in soups and dhal). Pea shoots and sprouts are also eaten as a vegetable.

The peach (Prunus persica) is a stone fruit native to northwest China, where it has been cultivated for at least 4,000 years. Despite its Latin name suggesting Persian origins, genetic evidence confirms China as its homeland — it reached Persia and Europe via ancient trade routes.

Peaches are classified into two main types by flesh texture: freestone (flesh separates easily from the pit) and clingstone (flesh clings to the pit). Freestone varieties dominate the fresh market, while clingstones are preferred for canning because they hold their shape better. Yellow-fleshed and white-fleshed varieties offer different flavour profiles — yellow peaches tend to be more acidic and aromatic, while white peaches are sweeter and more delicate.

Peach baby food is a gentle introduction to fruit for infants. Made from ripe peaches that have been cooked and strained to a completely smooth consistency, it is free from lumps, seeds, and skin, making it safe and easy for young babies to eat.

Peach is a popular first fruit for babies due to its naturally sweet flavour and mild taste. Commercial peach baby food is available in jars and pouches, often as a single-ingredient product or blended with other fruits. It can also be easily made at home by cooking and pureeing ripe peaches.

Peach nectar is a lush fruit drink made from peach purée blended with water and sugar. Thicker and more full-bodied than juice, it has a velvety texture and the unmistakable sweet, fragrant flavour of ripe peaches. Ascorbic acid (vitamin C) is added as a preservative to maintain colour and freshness.

Peach nectar is popular across southern Europe and Latin America, enjoyed chilled as a refreshing drink or used as a mixer in cocktails like the classic Bellini, which combines peach nectar with sparkling wine.

The peanut (Arachis hypogaea) is a legume native to South America that has become one of the world’s most important oilseed crops. Unlike tree nuts, peanuts develop underground — the plant flowers above the soil, then pushes its developing pods down into the earth to mature.

Peanuts are a staple food across many cultures. They’re eaten roasted, boiled, or raw, ground into peanut butter, pressed for cooking oil, and used as a base ingredient in sauces and confectionery. Global production is dominated by China, India, Nigeria, and the United States. Australia grows a modest crop, primarily in Queensland.

Peanut butter and spreads in various textures (creamy, chunky) and formulations.

Peanuts are technically legumes rather than true nuts, growing underground in pods on a low-growing plant. They have a mild, slightly sweet and earthy flavour when raw, which deepens and intensifies when roasted. They are one of the most widely consumed and versatile food plants in the world.

In Australian cooking, peanuts appear everywhere — in satay sauces, stir-fries, salads, baking, confectionery, and of course as a snack on their own. They are sold raw, roasted, salted, flavoured, and as the base for peanut butter and peanut oil. Raw peanuts are the starting point for all of these products and are also used in some Asian dishes where a softer texture is preferred.

Pears are fruit from trees in the genus Pyrus, cultivated for thousands of years across Europe and Asia. The most common commercial varieties are European pears (Pyrus communis), which include familiar types like Williams, Packham, and Beurre Bosc.

Pears are distinctive for their gritty texture, caused by stone cells in the flesh, and for the fact that most varieties ripen best off the tree. They’re eaten fresh, canned, dried, juiced, and used in cooking and baking. Pear juice and concentrate are also widely used as a sweetener in processed foods.

Pear baby food is one of the most popular first fruits for babies, prized for its mild sweetness and gentle flavour. Its smooth, thin consistency makes it easy for young infants to swallow, and pears are generally well-tolerated as an early weaning food.

Commercially prepared pear baby food is shelf-stable and convenient, though many parents also make it at home. It can be served on its own or mixed with other purées like apple or banana as babies progress to more varied flavours.

Liquid pear extracts including clear juices and thicker nectars, often fortified with vitamin C.

Pearl Millet.

The pecan (Carya illinoinensis) is a species of hickory tree native to the river valleys of the southern United States and northern Mexico. It produces large, oblong nuts with a distinctively rich, buttery flavour that sets them apart from other tree nuts.

Pecans are most closely associated with American Southern cooking — pecan pie being the iconic example — but they’re used globally in confectionery, baking, salads, and as a snack. The nut has a high oil content, which gives it its richness but also means it can turn rancid relatively quickly if not stored properly.

Pecan pralines are a classic Southern American confection — buttery, creamy, and intensely sweet. Each piece is a cluster of pecan halves or pieces bound together in a fudge-like caramel that’s softer and creamier than brittle toffee.

The word ‘praline’ means different things in different traditions. In the French and Belgian sense it refers to a smooth nut paste used in chocolates, but the Southern US praline is a distinct confection: a dropped candy, somewhere between fudge and caramel, always featuring pecans. They’re occasionally found in Australian specialty confectionery shops and import stores.

Pecans are among the richest and most flavourful of all tree nuts, with a natural sweetness and smooth, buttery texture that sets them apart from walnuts, which they superficially resemble. They’re native to North America and remain most closely associated with Southern US cooking, though they’re now grown commercially in Australia, particularly in northern New South Wales and Queensland.

Pecans are enormously versatile. They’re excellent eaten raw as a snack, toasted for salads and grain bowls, chopped into biscuit and cake batters, or used as the star of pecan pie. Their high oil content gives them a satisfying richness but also means they can go rancid relatively quickly — storing them in the fridge or freezer extends their shelf life considerably.

The Pekin duck (sometimes called the White Pekin) is a domesticated breed of duck descended from the mallard, originally developed in China and brought to the West in the 19th century. It is the dominant commercial meat duck globally, prized for its rapid growth rate, large size, and relatively mild flavour.

Pekin duck meat is richer and more strongly flavoured than chicken, with a thicker layer of subcutaneous fat that makes it well-suited to roasting. The breast is the most prized cut, often served with the skin on. Duck fat rendered during cooking is valued as a cooking medium in its own right.

Penicillium Camemberti.

Penicillium Roqueforti.

Penny Bun.

Pepeao, also known as wood ear mushroom, grouped to consolidate whole and dried culinary forms.

Peppers in this context refer to the sweet fruit of Capsicum annuum varieties — what Australians typically call capsicums. These are the large, bell-shaped or elongated fruits that come in green, red, yellow, and orange, with the colour reflecting the stage of ripeness (green being least ripe, red being fully ripe).

Sweet peppers are one of the most widely consumed vegetables globally. They’re eaten raw, roasted, grilled, stuffed, pickled, and used as a base in sauces and soups. Red peppers are sweeter and more fully flavoured than green ones, which tend to be slightly bitter.

Pepper-style sodas are a distinctive category of carbonated soft drink characterised by a complex, spicy-sweet flavour that doesn’t fit neatly into cola or lemon-lime categories. The flavour profile typically blends cola nut extract with a proprietary mix of fruit and spice flavourings, often including cherry, vanilla, and warm spice notes.

Dr Pepper is the most well-known example, though several other brands produce pepper-style drinks. In Australia, these are a niche product compared to mainstream colas, but they have a loyal following and are stocked in most major supermarkets.

Peppermint is a hybrid mint — a natural cross between watermint and spearmint — with a more intense, sharply cool flavour than common garden mint. Its high menthol content gives it a distinctive bite that’s immediately recognisable.

In the kitchen, fresh peppermint is used more sparingly than spearmint due to its potency. It’s excellent in drinks, desserts, and chocolate-based recipes, and pairs beautifully with lamb in the Australian tradition. It also makes a refreshing tea simply steeped in hot water. Peppermint grows vigorously in Australian gardens and is available year-round at most greengrocers.

Pepperoni is an American-style cured sausage that has become one of the most popular pizza toppings worldwide. It’s made from a blend of beef and pork, seasoned with paprika and chilli, giving it a characteristic reddish colour and a mild to moderate heat.

In Australia, pepperoni is most commonly bought pre-sliced for pizza making, though it also appears on charcuterie boards, in pasta bakes, and stuffed into bread rolls. Its slightly smoky, spicy flavour and firm texture mean it crisps up beautifully when baked, developing those signature curled, oil-filled cups on top of a pizza.

Perch is a broad category of freshwater fish prized for its clean, mild flavour and firm white flesh. Several species fall under the perch umbrella, including European perch, yellow perch, and various Australian native species often marketed under the perch name, such as golden perch (yellowbelly) and silver perch.

Perch is well-suited to simple preparations — pan-fried in butter, crumbed and shallow-fried, or baked with lemon and herbs. Its mild taste makes it approachable for people who don’t typically enjoy fishy flavours. In Australia, recreationally caught perch species are popular among inland anglers, while farmed and imported perch is available through fishmongers.

Perilla.

Persian Lime.

Consolidates general persimmon fruit data with specific cultivars like Fuyu and Hachiya and common raw preparations.

Pheasant.

Phoenix Oyster Mushroom.

Japanese-style pickled cabbage is a type of tsukemono — the broad family of Japanese pickled vegetables that accompany nearly every traditional meal. Unlike heavily fermented pickles, this is a fresh, lightly pickled preparation where the cabbage retains much of its crunch and natural sweetness, with just a gentle tang and saltiness.

In Australia, Japanese-style pickled vegetables have gained popularity alongside the broader enthusiasm for Japanese food. This style of pickled cabbage is quick to make at home and is a refreshing side dish served with rice, grilled meats, or as part of a bento box. Its light, clean flavour provides a palate-cleansing contrast to richer dishes.

Pickled cucumbers are one of the world’s most widespread preserved foods, found in nearly every cuisine that grows cucumbers. They range from the sharp, vinegar-brined gherkins common in Australian delis and burger joints to the softer, sour-fermented pickles traditional in Eastern European cooking.

The flavour varies considerably depending on the method. Vinegar-brined pickles tend to be bright and acidic, while naturally fermented varieties develop a more complex, sour tang from lactic acid bacteria. Spices like dill, garlic, mustard seed, and peppercorns are common additions.

Pickled eggplant is a staple of Mediterranean, Middle Eastern, and South Asian cuisines, where preserving summer vegetables for year-round use is a long tradition. The pickling process tempers the eggplant’s mild bitterness and gives it a pleasantly sour, savoury character.

The texture ranges from firm and slightly chewy to very soft depending on how the eggplant is prepared before pickling — some recipes call for grilling or blanching first, while others pickle the flesh raw. Common seasonings include garlic, chilli, herbs, and olive oil.

Ginger preserved in vinegar or brine, frequently used as a condiment or palate cleanser in Asian cuisine.

Pickled herring is one of the defining preserved foods of Northern Europe, with deep roots in Scandinavian, Dutch, German, and Eastern European cooking. The combination of salt and vinegar transforms the soft, oily flesh of fresh herring into something firm, tangy, and remarkably long-lasting.

Flavourings vary by tradition — Scandinavian versions often feature mustard, dill, or a sweet spice blend, while Eastern European preparations may use onion and allspice. The fish is typically served cold.

The domestic pig (Sus domestica) is descended from the wild boar and has been farmed for meat for thousands of years across Europe, Asia, and beyond. Pork is the most widely consumed meat globally, though consumption varies greatly by culture and religion.

Pork is a versatile meat. Fresh cuts include loin, belly, ribs, and leg, while processed pork products — bacon, ham, sausages, salami, prosciutto — make up a significant share of total consumption. The pig is notable for the very high proportion of the animal that is used, from fresh meat to offal to skin to fat (lard).

Pigeon (Columba livia domestica) has been raised for meat for thousands of years, making it one of the oldest domesticated poultry species. Young pigeons, known as squab, are typically harvested at around four weeks of age before they fledge, when the meat is at its most tender.

Pigeon meat is dark, rich, and more intensely flavoured than chicken, with a texture and taste sometimes compared to duck or game birds. It is considered a delicacy in French, Chinese, Egyptian, and Moroccan cuisines, among others. In Australia, squab is a niche product found primarily in fine dining restaurants and specialty butchers.

Specific light meat cuts from the pigeon, primarily consisting of the breast meat.

General meat cuts and preparations of pigeon, including both raw and cooked variations with skin-on or skin-off options.

Pigeon Pea.

Pignut.

Pike.

The pili nut (Canarium ovatum) comes from a tropical tree native to the Philippines and parts of Southeast Asia. The nut has a distinctive teardrop shape and a rich, buttery taste that has been compared to a combination of almonds and sunflower seeds.

Pili nuts are eaten roasted, candied, or processed into oil and confectionery. They have a high oil content and a smooth texture. In the Philippines, particularly in the Bicol region, pili nut products are a local specialty and an important part of the regional economy. Internationally, pili nuts remain relatively obscure but have gained some attention in specialty food markets.

Groups the generic pili nut entry with its dried nut variant.

Consolidates fresh pimento fruit and its processed canned form into a single archetype page.

Pine nuts are the edible seeds of several species of pine tree (genus Pinus), harvested from the cones of specific varieties. The most commercially important species include the stone pine (Pinus pinea) from the Mediterranean, Korean pine (Pinus koraiensis) from East Asia, and several piñon pine species from the Americas.

Pine nuts have a soft, creamy texture and a mild, slightly sweet and resinous flavour. They are best known as a key ingredient in Italian pesto and are also used in salads, baked goods, and Middle Eastern and East Asian cuisines. They’re typically sold shelled and are often lightly toasted before use to bring out their flavour.

Pine nuts are the edible seeds found inside the cones of certain pine tree species. They are small, pale, and teardrop-shaped, with a distinctively soft, almost buttery texture and a sweet, mildly resinous taste that sets them apart from other nuts.

They are an essential ingredient in traditional pesto, where they are blended with basil, garlic, parmesan, and olive oil. Beyond pesto, pine nuts are excellent toasted and scattered over salads, pasta, roasted vegetables, and grain dishes. They also feature prominently in Middle Eastern cooking, where they garnish dishes like kibbeh, hummus, and lamb.

The pineapple (Ananas comosus) is a tropical fruit native to South America that has become one of the world’s most popular and recognisable fruits. It’s a composite fruit — what appears to be a single fruit is actually a cluster of individual berries fused together around a central core.

Pineapples have a distinctive sweet-tart flavour and contain bromelain, an enzyme that breaks down proteins (which is why pineapple can tenderise meat and why it prevents gelatine from setting). The fruit is eaten fresh, canned, juiced, dried, and used in cooking and baking. Canned pineapple was one of the first mass-produced tropical fruit products and remains enormously popular.

Processed items and blended beverages where pineapple is a primary flavoring or ingredient.

Pineapple juice is one of the most popular tropical fruit juices, prized for its bold, sweet-tart flavour and distinctive aroma. Unsweetened varieties rely entirely on the fruit’s natural sugars, resulting in a juice that is refreshing and noticeably tangy.

It is widely used as a drink on its own, as a mixer in cocktails like the piña colada, and as a cooking ingredient — particularly in marinades, where its natural enzymes can help tenderise meat. It also appears in glazes, sauces, and baked goods.

Pineapple Sage.

Pink beans are a variety of common bean (Phaseolus vulgaris) with a smooth, dusty-pink skin that fades to brown when cooked. They are closely related to pinto beans and kidney beans but have a slightly smaller, rounder shape and a creamy, mild flavour.

Pink beans are widely used in Caribbean and Latin American cooking, particularly in Puerto Rican and Dominican cuisine, where they are a staple in rice-and-bean dishes and stews. They hold their shape reasonably well when cooked and absorb surrounding flavours readily.

A collection of pink bean records covering raw seeds, dry forms, and basic boiled preparations.

Pink Oyster Mushroom.

Pink salmon is the smallest and most abundant of the Pacific salmon species. Its flesh is a pale, soft pink — lighter than sockeye or king salmon — with a milder, more delicate flavour and a softer texture. It is sometimes called humpback salmon due to the distinctive hump males develop during spawning.

Because of its mild flavour and lower oil content compared to other salmon, pink salmon is versatile in the kitchen. It works well in patties, fish cakes, salads, and casseroles, and is the species most commonly found in canned salmon.

Pink Shrimp.

Pinto beans are a variety of common bean (Phaseolus vulgaris) and one of the most consumed beans in the world. Their name comes from the Spanish word for “painted,” referring to the distinctive mottled pattern on the dried bean. When cooked, the speckled pattern fades to a uniform brown and the bean becomes soft and creamy.

Pinto beans are the default bean in refried beans and a staple across Mexico, the southwestern United States, and much of Latin America. They are also eaten whole in soups, stews, and chilli. Their earthy, slightly nutty flavour makes them versatile in both traditional and contemporary dishes.

Pinto bean dip is a savoury spread made from pinto beans that have been cooked until tender, then mashed or blended with seasonings. It sits somewhere between a Mexican-style refried bean dip and a hummus in texture and use.

Popular as a party dip with corn chips or vegetable sticks, it also works well as a spread in wraps and burritos or dolloped onto nachos. Most commercial versions come in original or mildly spiced flavours, and the base is naturally high in protein and fibre.

Pinto bean sprouts are germinated pinto beans harvested after a few days of growth, when the emerging shoot is a few centimetres long. They have a mild, slightly nutty flavour and a crisp, crunchy texture.

Like other bean sprouts, they can be tossed into salads, added to stir-fries, or used as a topping for soups and sandwiches. Sprouting changes the nutritional profile of the bean, and many people find sprouts easier to digest than the whole dried seed.

Pinto beans are one of the most popular dried beans in the Americas, recognisable by their mottled beige-and-brown skin, which turns a uniform pinkish-brown when cooked. They have a creamy, earthy flavour and a soft, mealy texture that lends itself well to mashing.

They are the classic bean behind refried beans, burritos, and chilli con carne, but are equally at home in soups, stews, salads, and casseroles. In Australian kitchens they are a versatile pantry staple, available dried or canned.

Pinyon pines are several species of slow-growing pine trees native to arid and semi-arid regions of western North America. They produce large, wingless seeds — commonly called pine nuts or piñons — that have been a critical food source for Indigenous peoples of the American Southwest for thousands of years.

Pinyon pine nuts are similar to the Mediterranean stone pine nuts found in most supermarkets but tend to be smaller, rounder, and more intensely flavoured. They have a sweet, resinous taste and a rich, buttery texture.

Consolidates raw, dried, and roasted pinyon pine seeds into a single culinary category for the edible nut.

Pioppini mushrooms (Agrocybe aegerita) are small to medium-sized mushrooms that grow in clusters, with dark brown caps and slender, firm stems. Also called black poplar mushrooms or velvet pioppini, they have a mild, nutty flavour and a pleasantly chewy texture that holds up well in cooking.

In Italian cuisine, where they are particularly prized, pioppini are sautéed with garlic and olive oil, tossed through pasta, or added to risottos and soups. Their firm texture also makes them a good choice for stir-fries and braised dishes.

Pioppino Mushroom.

Pipi.

Pistachios are the seeds of a small desert tree (Pistacia vera) native to Central Asia and the Middle East. They are one of the oldest known nut crops, with evidence of consumption dating back thousands of years in the region that is now Iran and Turkey.

The nut is distinctive for its naturally split shell, which opens as the seed matures — a trait that makes them uniquely easy to eat compared to other tree nuts. The kernel inside is characteristically green, with a flavour that balances sweetness, earthiness, and a slight resinous quality.

Pistachios are the seeds of the Pistacia vera tree, native to Central Asia and the Middle East. They are easily recognised by their partially split shell and vivid green kernel, and have a uniquely sweet, slightly resinous flavour that sets them apart from other nuts.

Pistachios are eaten as a snack — roasted and salted in the shell — and are a key ingredient in many cuisines. They feature prominently in Middle Eastern sweets like baklava, Turkish delight, and halva, and are widely used in ice cream, biscuits, and savoury dishes. Chopped pistachios make an excellent garnish for everything from lamb to pavlova.

Pitanga, commonly called Surinam cherry or Brazilian cherry, is a small fruit from the Eugenia uniflora tree. The fruit is distinctive in appearance — roughly the size of a cherry but with deep ribs that give it a pumpkin-like shape, ripening from green to orange to deep red or near-black.

The flavour is complex: sweet and tart with a resinous, slightly peppery finish that is unlike any common fruit. Pitanga can be eaten fresh, made into jams and jellies, blended into juices, or used in sauces and desserts. The riper and darker the fruit, the sweeter and less resinous it tends to be.

Plaice.

Plantain.

Plums are stone fruit from the genus Prunus, closely related to peaches, nectarines, and cherries. They come in a wide range of varieties — from small, tart damsons to large, sweet blood plums — with skin colours spanning deep purple, red, yellow, and green. The flesh is typically juicy and soft when ripe, with a flavour that ranges from honey-sweet to pleasantly tart.

Plums are delicious eaten fresh but also cook beautifully, making excellent jams, sauces, tarts, crumbles, and compotes. They pair well with spices like cinnamon and star anise, and complement rich meats like duck and pork.

Plum jam is a classic preserve made by cooking plums with sugar until the mixture sets to a spreadable consistency. It has a deep, fruity flavour with a pleasant tartness that balances the sweetness, and a colour that ranges from ruby red to dark purple depending on the variety of plum used.

Plum jam is a traditional staple of the Australian pantry, spread on toast, scones, or crumpets, and used as a filling in cakes, tarts, and biscuits. It also makes an excellent glaze for roast meats, particularly pork and duck, where its tartness cuts through the richness.

Plum sauce is a smooth, glossy condiment with a balance of sweetness, tartness, and warm spice. It ranges in colour from deep amber to reddish-brown depending on the plum variety used.

In Australian kitchens, plum sauce is a staple alongside roast duck and Chinese-style barbecue dishes. It also works well as a dipping sauce for spring rolls, dumplings, and crispy wontons. Some versions lean sweeter while others carry more vinegar punch or chilli heat.

Plumcot.

Pluot.

Fresh poblano peppers, a mild chili variety used primarily for roasting and stuffing.

Poi is one of the oldest and most culturally significant foods of the Pacific Islands, particularly Hawai’i. It has a smooth, slightly sticky texture and a mild, faintly sweet flavour that becomes tangier as it ferments over a day or two.

Traditionally, poi is eaten as a starchy side — much as rice or bread might be used — scooped up with the fingers alongside fish, pork, or other dishes at a Hawaiian lū’au. Fresh poi is relatively neutral in taste, while day-old or two-day poi develops a pleasant sourness that some prefer.

Pointed Gourd.

Pokeweed (Phytolacca americana) is a large, fast-growing perennial plant native to eastern North America. It has a long history as a foraged food in the southern United States, where the young spring shoots — known as poke sallet or poke salad — are a traditional seasonal green.

Pokeweed is notable because the mature plant is toxic. The roots, berries, and mature stems and leaves contain phytolaccatoxin and other compounds that can cause serious illness. Only the young shoots, harvested before they turn red or purple, are considered safe to eat — and even these must be boiled in at least two changes of water before consumption.

Pokeweed shoots are foraged in early spring when the new growth is young, tender, and under about 15–20 centimetres tall. At this stage, the shoots resemble thick asparagus spears with a mild, green flavour.

Pokeweed has a long history as a foraged food in the southern United States, where cooked poke shoots — known as poke sallet — are a traditional spring dish. The plant is considered a weed in many regions and grows prolifically in disturbed soils and woodland edges.

Polar bear (Ursus maritimus) is the largest land carnivore, native to the Arctic sea ice and surrounding coastlines. Its meat has been a traditional food source for Inuit, Inupiat, Yupik, and other Indigenous peoples of the Arctic for thousands of years, forming part of a subsistence diet closely tied to cultural identity and survival in extreme environments.

Polar bear meat is consumed in parts of Canada, Alaska, Greenland, and Russia, but only through regulated Indigenous subsistence hunting. It is not commercially traded or sold. The species is classified as vulnerable due to the loss of Arctic sea ice from climate change.

Groups raw polar bear muscle and regional meat preparations into a single primary meat archetype.

Pollock is a lean, flaky white fish with a mild, slightly sweet flavour. Two main species are commercially fished: Alaska pollock (walleye pollock) from the North Pacific, and Atlantic pollock from the North Atlantic. Alaska pollock is one of the most abundant commercial fish species in the world.

Most people have eaten pollock without realising it — it is the primary fish used in fish fingers, imitation crab meat (surimi), and many fast-food fish fillets. As a whole fillet, pollock is versatile and takes well to baking, pan-frying, and battering. Its mild flavour makes it a good choice for people who find stronger fish off-putting.

Polynesian Arrowroot.

Pomegranates are striking fruits — crack one open and you find hundreds of ruby-red arils packed tightly inside a honeycomb of bitter white pith. Each aril is a tiny parcel of sweet-tart juice surrounding a small edible seed. The flavour balances sweetness with a bright, tannic acidity.

Pomegranates feature prominently in Middle Eastern, Mediterranean, and Indian cuisines. The arils are scattered over salads, dips like hummus, and grain dishes for bursts of colour and flavour. Pomegranate molasses — a thick, tangy reduction of the juice — is a key ingredient in many regional dishes.

Pomegranate juice has a distinctive flavour — intensely fruity with a dry, tannic edge that sets it apart from most other fruit juices. Its deep ruby colour comes from anthocyanins, the same pigments found in red wine and berries.

The juice is enjoyed on its own as a drink, often diluted or mixed into cocktails and mocktails. It is also used as a cooking ingredient in marinades, dressings, and sauces, where its acidity and colour add depth. In Middle Eastern cuisine, pomegranate juice forms the base of several traditional beverages.

Thickened pomegranate concentrates and syrups used as condiments or cocktail ingredients.

Pomelo.

Pomfret.

Puffed corn kernels in various snack formats, from air-popped to candy-coated.

Poppy seeds come from the opium poppy (Papaver somniferum), a flowering plant native to the eastern Mediterranean and western Asia. While the plant is the same species used to produce opium and its derivatives, the seeds themselves contain only trace amounts of opiates and are a legal, widely used culinary ingredient in most countries.

Poppy seeds have a mild, nutty flavour and a distinctive crunch. They are used extensively in European, Middle Eastern, and South Asian cooking — sprinkled on bread and pastries, ground into fillings for cakes and strudels, or pressed for their oil. The seeds can be slate-blue (most common in Western cooking), white, or yellow, depending on the variety.

Grouping of whole poppy seeds used as a spice, garnish, or ingredient in baking.

Culinary and technical oil extracted from poppy seeds.

Porcini (Boletus edulis) are a group of wild mushrooms found across temperate forests in Europe, North America, and parts of Asia. They are one of the most commercially important wild mushrooms in the world, valued for their dense, meaty texture and deep umami flavour.

Porcini have a long history in European cuisines, particularly Italian, French, and Polish cooking, where they appear in risottos, pastas, soups, and sauces. They are sold fresh in season and widely available dried year-round. Dried porcini have a concentrated flavour and are a pantry staple in many kitchens.

Cep.

Pork is the culinary name for meat from the domestic pig (Sus scrofa domesticus). It is the most consumed meat globally, accounting for roughly a third of all meat eaten worldwide, though consumption varies enormously by culture and religion.

Pigs were among the earliest animals domesticated by humans, with evidence of pig farming dating back around 9,000 years in parts of the Middle East and China. Today pork is central to the cuisines of China, Southeast Asia, Europe, and the Americas. Common cuts include loin, belly, shoulder, ribs, and leg (ham).

Pork belly is a boneless cut taken from the underside of the pig, recognisable by its distinctive layers of meat and fat running in parallel bands beneath the skin. It is one of the most flavourful cuts of pork, owing to its generous fat content which bastes the meat as it cooks.

In Australian cooking, pork belly is most celebrated as a roast — scored skin crisping into golden crackling while the meat beneath turns meltingly tender. It is equally important in Asian cuisines: Chinese red-braised pork belly, Korean samgyeopsal (grilled pork belly), and Japanese kakuni (braised pork belly) are all beloved dishes built around this cut.

Pork chops and steaks are individual-serve cuts taken from the loin, the long muscle that runs along the pig’s back. They’re one of the most popular ways to buy pork in Australia, equally at home on a weeknight dinner plate as they are on the barbecue.

Bone-in chops tend to be juicier than their boneless counterparts, as the bone helps insulate the meat during cooking. They cook quickly at high heat and pair well with apple-based sauces, mustard, or simple seasoning. Thickness matters — a chop cut too thin will dry out before it develops a good crust.

Peripheral parts like feet, ears, tail, and head, often used for their collagen content or in regional specialties.

Lard is the rendered fat of the pig, used as a cooking fat for centuries before vegetable oils became dominant. It has a neutral flavour when properly rendered and a high smoke point, making it excellent for frying, roasting, and baking.

In pastry, lard produces exceptionally flaky crusts — many bakers consider it superior to butter for pie dough and sausage rolls. It was the standard cooking fat in Australian kitchens well into the mid-twentieth century and is now seeing renewed interest as attitudes toward animal fats shift.

Internal organs and non-skeletal muscle parts of the pig used in traditional cookery.

Smooth or chunky spreads made from meat, fat, and often liver, used as appetizers or sandwich fillings.

Pork ribs are cut from the rib cage of the pig and come in several styles, with spareribs (from the belly side) and baby back ribs (from the loin side) being the most common. They have a generous ratio of meat to bone and carry enough fat to stay moist through long cooking.

Ribs are one of the defining cuts of barbecue culture and have become a weekend favourite across Australia. They respond best to low-and-slow methods — smoking, braising, or long oven roasting — which break down their connective tissue into a tender, pull-apart texture. A glaze or sauce applied in the final stages adds a sticky, caramelised finish.

Pork roasts are large, whole cuts from the loin — the prime muscle running along the pig’s back. The loin is one of the leanest sections of the animal, making it well-suited to roasting where the exterior can develop a crust while the interior stays juicy.

The classic Australian pork roast, with its crackling, is one of the most celebrated ways to cook this cut. The key is getting the skin dry and the oven hot enough to blister it, while keeping the lean meat beneath from drying out. Scoring the skin, rubbing it with salt, and starting at a high temperature are the standard techniques.

Fresh or smoked meat mixtures encased in skins or sold as patties, often seasoned with various herbs and spices.

Fried or roasted pig skin products consumed as crispy snacks or garnishes.

Pork tenderloin (also called pork fillet) is the most tender cut on the pig. It’s a long, narrow muscle that sits inside the loin, does very little work during the animal’s life, and is consequently extremely lean and fine-grained.

It cooks quickly — a whole tenderloin can be roasted, grilled, or pan-seared in under 20 minutes — making it a popular weeknight option. Its mild flavour takes well to marinades, spice rubs, and sauces. The main challenge is avoiding overcooking, as the low fat content means it dries out rapidly past medium.